Chapter 82

119Tachart, quoted by Kolben,Present State of the Cape of Good Hope, i. 167.

119Tachart, quoted by Kolben,Present State of the Cape of Good Hope, i. 167.

120Ibid.i. 59.

120Ibid.i. 59.

121Barrow,Travels into the Interior of Southern Africa, i. 151sq.

121Barrow,Travels into the Interior of Southern Africa, i. 151sq.

122Holub,Seven Years in South Africa, ii. 209.

122Holub,Seven Years in South Africa, ii. 209.

123Johnston,Uganda Protectorate, ii. 630, 879.

123Johnston,Uganda Protectorate, ii. 630, 879.

124Felkin, inProceed. Roy. Soc. Edinburgh, xiii. 232.

124Felkin, inProceed. Roy. Soc. Edinburgh, xiii. 232.

125Winterbottom,Account of the Native Africans in the Neighbourhood of Sierra Leone, i. 206sq.

125Winterbottom,Account of the Native Africans in the Neighbourhood of Sierra Leone, i. 206sq.

126Burton,Two Trips to Gorilla Land, i. 225sq.

126Burton,Two Trips to Gorilla Land, i. 225sq.

127Monrad,Guinea-Kysten og dens Indbyggere, p. 6.

127Monrad,Guinea-Kysten og dens Indbyggere, p. 6.

128Quoted by Ling Roth,Great Benin, p. 45.

128Quoted by Ling Roth,Great Benin, p. 45.

129Hinde,The Last of the Masai, p. 34.

129Hinde,The Last of the Masai, p. 34.

130Baumann,Durch Massailand, p. 165.

130Baumann,Durch Massailand, p. 165.

131Bory de St. Vincent,Essais sur les Isles Fortunées, p. 70.

131Bory de St. Vincent,Essais sur les Isles Fortunées, p. 70.

132Leo Africanus,History and Description of Africa, i. 183.

132Leo Africanus,History and Description of Africa, i. 183.

133Dyveyrier,Exploration du Sahara, p. 384sq.

133Dyveyrier,Exploration du Sahara, p. 384sq.

134Parkyns,Life in Abyssinia, ii. 182.

134Parkyns,Life in Abyssinia, ii. 182.

135Chavanne,Die Sahara, p. 392.

135Chavanne,Die Sahara, p. 392.

136St. John,Adventures in the Lybian Desert, p. 31.

136St. John,Adventures in the Lybian Desert, p. 31.

137Herodotus, iii. 8.

137Herodotus, iii. 8.

138Burckhardt,Notes on the Bedouins and Wahábys, p. 190sq.

138Burckhardt,Notes on the Bedouins and Wahábys, p. 190sq.

139Wallin,Reseanteckningar från Orienten, iii. 116.

139Wallin,Reseanteckningar från Orienten, iii. 116.

140Burckhardt,op. cit.p. 104sq.Cf.Wallin,op. cit.iv. 89sq.; Doughty,Arabia Deserta, i. 241.

140Burckhardt,op. cit.p. 104sq.Cf.Wallin,op. cit.iv. 89sq.; Doughty,Arabia Deserta, i. 241.

141Blunt,Bedouin Tribes of the Euphrates, ii. 203sq.Cf.Niebuhr,Travels through Arabia, ii. 302:—“There is no instance of false testimony given in respect to the descent of a horse. Every Arabian is persuaded that himself and his whole family would be ruined, if he should prevaricate in giving his oath in an affair of such consequence.”

141Blunt,Bedouin Tribes of the Euphrates, ii. 203sq.Cf.Niebuhr,Travels through Arabia, ii. 302:—“There is no instance of false testimony given in respect to the descent of a horse. Every Arabian is persuaded that himself and his whole family would be ruined, if he should prevaricate in giving his oath in an affair of such consequence.”

Various statements of travellers thus directly contradict the common opinion that want of truthfulness is mostly a characteristic of uncivilised races.142And we have much reason to assume that a foreigner visiting a savage tribe is apt rather to underrate than to overestimate its veracity. Mr. Savage Landor gives us a curious insight into an explorer’s method of testing it. “If you were to say to an Ainu, ‘You are old, are you not?’ he would answer’Yes’; but if you asked the same man, ‘You are not old, are you?’ he would equally answer ‘Yes.’” And then comes the conclusion:—“Knowingly speaking the truth is not one of their characteristics; indeed, they do not know the difference between falsehood and truth.”143It is hardly surprising to hear from other authorities that the Ainu are remarkably honest, and regard veracity as one of the most imperative duties.144Speaking of the Uaupés and other Brazilian tribes, Mr. Wallace observes:—“In my communications and inquiries among the Indians on various matters, I have always found the greatest caution necessary, to prevent one’s arriving at wrong conclusions. They are always apt to affirm that which they see you wish to believe, and, when they do not at all comprehend your question, will unhesitatingly answer, ‘Yes.’”145Savages who are inclined to give inaccurate answers to questions made by strangers, may nevertheless be truthful towards each other. As the regard for life and property, so the regard for truth varies according as the person concerned is a foreigner or a tribesman. “Perfidy and faithlessness,” says Crawfurd, “are vices of the Indian islanders, and those vices of which they have been most frequently accused by strangers. This sentence against them must, however, be understood with some allowances. In their domestic and social intercourse, they are far from being a deceitful people, but in reality possess more integrity than it is reasonable to look for with so much misgovernment and barbarity. It is in their intercourse with strangers and with enemies that, like other barbarians, the treachery of their character is displayed.”146The natives of the interior of Sumatra are “dishonest in their dealings with strangers, which they esteem no moral defect.”147Dalager states that the same Greenlanders who, among themselves, in the sale of an objectwhich, the buyer had not seen, would depreciate it rather than overpraise it—even though the seller was anxious to get rid of it—told frightful lies in their transactions with Danish traders.148The Touareg, whilst scrupulously faithful to a promise given to one of their own people, do not regard as binding a promise given to a Christian;149and their Arab neighbours say that their word, “like water fallen on the sand, is never to be found again.”150The Masai, according to Herr Merker, hold any kind of deceit to be allowable in their relations with persons of another race.151The Hovas of Madagascar even considered it a duty for anyone speaking with foreigners on political matters to state the exact opposite to the truth, and punished him who did otherwise.152

142Burton,City of the Saints, p. 130. Vierkandt,Naturvölker und Kulturvölker, p. 273. von Jhering,Der Zweck im Recht, ii. 606.

142Burton,City of the Saints, p. 130. Vierkandt,Naturvölker und Kulturvölker, p. 273. von Jhering,Der Zweck im Recht, ii. 606.

143Landor,Alone with the Hairy Ainu, p. 283.

143Landor,Alone with the Hairy Ainu, p. 283.

144Holland, inJour. Anthr. Inst.iii. 237. von Siebold,Aino auf der Insel Yesso, p. 25.

144Holland, inJour. Anthr. Inst.iii. 237. von Siebold,Aino auf der Insel Yesso, p. 25.

145Wallace,Travels on the Amazon, p. 494sq.

145Wallace,Travels on the Amazon, p. 494sq.

146Crawfurd,op. cit.i. 71sq.Cf.Christian,Caroline Islands, p. 71sq.

146Crawfurd,op. cit.i. 71sq.Cf.Christian,Caroline Islands, p. 71sq.

147Marsden,op. cit.p. 208.

147Marsden,op. cit.p. 208.

148Dalager,op. cit.p. 60sq.

148Dalager,op. cit.p. 60sq.

149von Bary, quoted by Chavanne,Die Sahara, p. 186.

149von Bary, quoted by Chavanne,Die Sahara, p. 186.

150Dubois,Timbuctoo, p. 231.

150Dubois,Timbuctoo, p. 231.

151Merker,Die Masai, p. 115.

151Merker,Die Masai, p. 115.

152Ellis,History of Madagascar, i. 144. Professor Stanley Hall observes (‘Children’s Lies,’ inAmerican Journal of Psychology, iii. 62) that ”truth for our friends and lies for our enemies is a practical, though not distinctly conscious rule widely current with children.”

152Ellis,History of Madagascar, i. 144. Professor Stanley Hall observes (‘Children’s Lies,’ inAmerican Journal of Psychology, iii. 62) that ”truth for our friends and lies for our enemies is a practical, though not distinctly conscious rule widely current with children.”

In point of truthfulness savages are in many cases superior to nations more advanced in culture. “A Chinese,” says Mr. Wells Williams, “requires but little motive to falsify, and he is constantly sharpening his wits to cozen his customer—wheedle him by promises and cheat him in goods or work.”153His ordinary speech is said to be so full of insincerity that it is very difficult to learn the truth in almost any case.154He feels no shame at being detected in a lie, nor does he fear any punishment from his gods for it;155if you call him a liar, “you arouse in him no sense of outrage, no sentiment of degradation.”156Yet the moral teachings of the Chinese inculcate truthfulness as a stringent duty. One of their injunctions is, “Let children always be taught to speak the simple truth.”157Many sayings may be quoted from Confucius in which sincerity is celebrated as highly and demanded as urgently as it ever was by anyChristian moralist. Faithfulness and sincerity, he said, should be held as first principles. Sincerity is the way of Heaven, the end and beginning of things, without which there would be nothing. It is as necessary to truly virtuous conduct as a boat is to a man wishing to cross a river, or as oars are to a boat. The superior man ought to feel shame when his conduct is not in accord with his words.158But there are instances in which sincerity has to yield to family duties: a father should conceal the misconduct of his son, and a son that of his father.159Moreover, the great moralists themselves did not always act up to their lofty principles. Confucius and Mencius sometimes did not hesitate to tell a lie for the sake of convenience.160The former could excuse himself from seeing an unwelcome visitor on the ground that he was sick, when there was nothing the matter with him;161and he deliberately broke an oath which he had sworn, because it had been forced from him.162In Japan, Burma, and Siam, truth is more respected than in China. “In love of truth,” says Professor Rein, “the Japanese, so far as my experience goes, are not inferior to us Europeans.”163The Burmese, though partial to much exaggeration, are generally truthful.164And “the mendacity so characteristic of Orientals is not a national defect among the Siamese. Lying, no doubt, is often resorted to as a protection against injustice and oppression, but the chances are greatly in favour of truth when evidence is sought.”165

153Wells Williams,The Middle Kingdom, i. 834.

153Wells Williams,The Middle Kingdom, i. 834.

154Smith,Chinese Characteristics, p. 271.

154Smith,Chinese Characteristics, p. 271.

155Cooke,China, p. 414. Edkins,Religion in China, p. 122. Bowring,Siam, i. 106. Wells Williams,op. cit.i. 834.

155Cooke,China, p. 414. Edkins,Religion in China, p. 122. Bowring,Siam, i. 106. Wells Williams,op. cit.i. 834.

156Smith,Chinese Characteristics, p. 271.

156Smith,Chinese Characteristics, p. 271.

157Wells Williams,op. cit.i. 522.

157Wells Williams,op. cit.i. 522.

158Lun Yü, i. 8. 2; vii. 24; ix. 24; xii. 10. 1; xv. 5. 2.Chung Yung, xx. 18. Douglas,Confucianism and Taouism, pp. 103, 114, 146. Legge,Chinese Classics, i. 100.

158Lun Yü, i. 8. 2; vii. 24; ix. 24; xii. 10. 1; xv. 5. 2.Chung Yung, xx. 18. Douglas,Confucianism and Taouism, pp. 103, 114, 146. Legge,Chinese Classics, i. 100.

159Lun Yü, xiii. 18. 2.

159Lun Yü, xiii. 18. 2.

160Legge,Chinese Classics, i. 100. Smith,Chinese Characteristics, p. 267.

160Legge,Chinese Classics, i. 100. Smith,Chinese Characteristics, p. 267.

161Lun Yü, vi. 13.

161Lun Yü, vi. 13.

162Lun Yü, xvii. 20.

162Lun Yü, xvii. 20.

163Rein,Japan, p. 393.

163Rein,Japan, p. 393.

164MacMahon,Far Cathay and Farther India, p. 62. Forbes,British Burma, p. 45. Fytche,Burma Past and Present, ii. 67.

164MacMahon,Far Cathay and Farther India, p. 62. Forbes,British Burma, p. 45. Fytche,Burma Past and Present, ii. 67.

165Bowring,Siam, i. 105.

165Bowring,Siam, i. 105.

Lying has been called the national vice of the Hindus.166“It is not too much to assert that the mass of Bengalis have no notion of truth and falsehood.”167A gentlemanwho has been brought into the closest intimacy with natives of all classes, declares “that when a question is asked, the full bearing of which on themselves or those connected with them they cannot see, you may rely upon it that the first answer you receive is false; but that, when they see that the truth cannot injure themselves or any one they care for, they will speak the truth.”168The testimony of a Hindu is not generally regarded as evidence.169Forgery is frequently resorted to, cheating is rife. “In almost all business transactions of the smallest kind a written agreement must be made on both sides, and this must be stamped and registered, because it is believed that a man’s word is not binding.”170Nor is a lie held disreputable, especially if not found out.171But in India, as elsewhere, the question whether truth or falsehood is to be spoken depends on the relationship between the speaker and the party addressed. In their relations with each other, says Sir W. H. Sleeman, members of a village community spoke as much truth as those of any other community in the world, but in their relations with the government they told as many lies; “if a man had told a lie tocheathis neighbour, he would have become an object of hatred and contempt—if he had told a lie tosavehis neighbour’s fields from an increase of rent or tax, he would have become an object of esteem and respect.”172Of the Sûdra inhabitants of Central India Sir John Malcolm likewise observes that “they may be said, in their intercourse with strangers and with officers of government, to evade the truth, and often to assert positive falsehoods”; whereas, “in their intercourse with each other, falsehood is not common, and many (particularly some of the cultivators) are distinguished by their adherence to truth.”173The ancient Hindus were praised for their veracity and good faith;in his History of India, written in the second century of the Christian era, Arrian states that no Indian was ever known to tell an untruth.174In the sacred books of India truthfulness is highly celebrated. “If veracity and a thousand horse-sacrifices are weighed against each other, it is found that truth ranks even higher than a thousand horse-sacrifices.”175“Verily the gods are the truth, and man is the untruth.”176“There is one law which the gods do keep, namely, the truth. It is through this that their conquest, their glory is unassailable: and so, forsooth, is his conquest, his glory unassailable whosoever, knowing this, speaks the truth.”177Attendance on, or the worship of, the sacred fire means speaking the truth:—“Whosoever speaks the truth, acts as if he sprinkled that lighted fire with ghee; for even so does he enkindle it: and ever the more increases his own vital energy, and day by day does he become better. And whosoever speaks the untruth, acts as if he sprinkled that lighted fire with water; for even so does he enfeeble it: and ever the less becomes his own vital energy, and day by day does he become more wicked. Let him, therefore, speak nothing but the truth.”178Fearful denunciations are particularly pronounced against those who deliver false testimony in a court of justice.179By giving false evidence concerning small cattle, a witness commits the sin of killing ten men; by false evidence concerning cows, horses, and men, he commits the sin of killing a hundred, a thousand, and ten thousand men respectively; but by false evidence concerning land, he commits the sin of killing the whole human race.180The sin of falsehood thus admits of different degrees according to the magnitude of the injury inflicted by it. Indeed, “in some cases a man who, though knowing the facts to be different, gives such false evidence from a pious motive, does not lose heaven; such evidence they call the speech of the gods.”181Moreover, “whenever the death of a Sûdra, of a Vaisya, of a Kshatriya, or of a Brâhmana would be caused by a declaration of the truth, a falsehood may be spoken; for such falsehood is preferable to the truth.”182According to Buddhist conceptions of lying, “the magnitude of the crime increases in proportion to the value of the article, or the importance of the matter, about which the lie is told.”183And it is a lesser wrong to lie in self-defence than to lie with a view to procuring an advantage by injuring one’s neighbour. Thus, to deny the possession of any article, in order to retain it, is not a lie of a heinous description, whereas to bear false witness in order that the proper owner may be deprived of that which he possesses, is a lie to which a greater degree of culpability is attached.184The Buddhist precept of truthfulness is more restricted than that laid down by Brahmanism:—“It is said by the Brahmans that it is not a crime to tell a lie on behalf of the guru, or on account of cattle, or to save the person’s own life, or to gain the victory in any contest; but this is contrary to the precept.”185One of the conditions that make a Buddha is, never, under the influence of desire and other passions, to utter a conscious lie, for the sake of wealth or any other advantage.186From the time that Gautama became a Bodhisattva, or claimant for the Buddhaship, through all his births until the attainment of the Buddhaship, he never told a lie; and “it were easier for the sakwala [or system of worlds] to be blown away than for a supreme Buddha to utter an untruth.”187His followers are not equally scrupulous. The Buddhists of Ceylon, we are told, lie without compunction, and are not ashamed to be detected in a lie.188And religious Mongols “do not hesitate to tell lies even when saying their prayers.”189

166Caldwell,Tinnevelly Shanars, p. 38.Cf.Kearns,Tribes of South India, pp. 64 (Reddies and Hindus generally), 68 (Reddies and Naickers); Burton,Sindh, pp. 197, 284;Idem,Sind Revisited, i. 314.

166Caldwell,Tinnevelly Shanars, p. 38.Cf.Kearns,Tribes of South India, pp. 64 (Reddies and Hindus generally), 68 (Reddies and Naickers); Burton,Sindh, pp. 197, 284;Idem,Sind Revisited, i. 314.

167Trevelyan, quoted by Wilkins,Modern Hinduism, p. 401.

167Trevelyan, quoted by Wilkins,Modern Hinduism, p. 401.

168Wilkins,Modern Hinduism, p. 399sq.

168Wilkins,Modern Hinduism, p. 399sq.

169Percival,Land of the Veda, p. 288.

169Percival,Land of the Veda, p. 288.

170Wilkins,op. cit.p. 407sq.

170Wilkins,op. cit.p. 407sq.

171Ibid.p. 400. Caldwell,op. cit.p. 40.

171Ibid.p. 400. Caldwell,op. cit.p. 40.

172Sleeman,op. cit.ii. 123.Cf.ibid.ii. 118, 129sq.; Crooke,Tribes and Castes of the North-Western Provinces and Oudh, ii. 478 (Hâbûra).

172Sleeman,op. cit.ii. 123.Cf.ibid.ii. 118, 129sq.; Crooke,Tribes and Castes of the North-Western Provinces and Oudh, ii. 478 (Hâbûra).

173Malcolm,Memoir of Central India, ii. 171.Cf.Hislop,op. cit.p. 1.

173Malcolm,Memoir of Central India, ii. 171.Cf.Hislop,op. cit.p. 1.

174Arrian,Historia Indica, xii. 5.

174Arrian,Historia Indica, xii. 5.

175Institutes of Vishnu, viii. 36.

175Institutes of Vishnu, viii. 36.

176Satapatha-Brâhmana, i. 1. 1. 4; iii. 3. 2. 2.

176Satapatha-Brâhmana, i. 1. 1. 4; iii. 3. 2. 2.

177Ibid.iii. 4. 2. 8.Cf.ibid.i. 1. 1. 5.

177Ibid.iii. 4. 2. 8.Cf.ibid.i. 1. 1. 5.

178Ibid.ii. 2. 2. 19.

178Ibid.ii. 2. 2. 19.

179Laws of Manu, viii. 82.

179Laws of Manu, viii. 82.

180Gautama, xiii. 14sqq.

180Gautama, xiii. 14sqq.

181Laws of Manu, viii. 103.

181Laws of Manu, viii. 103.

182Laws of Manu, viii. 104.

182Laws of Manu, viii. 104.

183Hardy,Manual of Budhism, p. 486.

183Hardy,Manual of Budhism, p. 486.

184Ibid.p. 485.

184Ibid.p. 485.

185Ibid.p. 486.

185Ibid.p. 486.

186Jâtaka Tales, p. 23.

186Jâtaka Tales, p. 23.

187Hardy,op. cit.p. 486.

187Hardy,op. cit.p. 486.

188Knox, quoted by Schmidt,Ceylon, p. 239.

188Knox, quoted by Schmidt,Ceylon, p. 239.

189Gilmour,Among the Mongols, p. 259.

189Gilmour,Among the Mongols, p. 259.

According to Zoroastrianism, truthfulness is a most sacred duty. Lying is a creation of the evil spirits, and the most efficacious weapon against it is the holy religion revealed to man by Zarathustra.190In one of the Pahlavi texts it is said that when the Spirit of Wisdom was asked, “Through how many ways and motives and good works do people arrive most at heaven?” he answered thus: “The first good work is liberality, the second truth.”191Contracts are inviolable, both those which are pledged with hand or pawn, and those by a mere word.192It is a duty to keep faith even with an unbeliever:—“Break not the contract, O Spitama, neither the one that thou hadst entered into with one of the unfaithful, nor the one that thou hadst entered into with one of the faithful who is one of thy own faith.”193Greek historians and cuneiform inscriptions also bear witness to the great detestation in which falsehood was held by the ancient Persians. Herodotus writes:—“Their sons are carefully instructed from their fifth to their twentieth year in three things alone—to ride, to draw the bow, and to speak the truth…. The most disgraceful thing in the world, they think, is to tell a lie; the next worse, to owe a debt: because, among other reasons, the debtor is obliged to tell lies.”194In the inscriptions of Darius lying is taken as representative of all evil. He is favoured by Ormuzd “because he was not a heretic, nor a liar, nor a tyrant.” His great fear is lest it may be thought that any part of the record which he has set up has been falsely related; and he even abstains from narrating certain events of his reign “lest to him who may hereafter peruse the tablet, the many deeds that have been done by him may seem to be falsely recorded.”195Professor Spiegel tries to prove thatfalsehood, not truthfulness, was a national characteristic of the ancient Eranians, to which their noblest men offered fruitless resistance;196but the facts he quotes in support of his opinion refer to their dealings with foreign nations, and have consequently little bearing on the subject. The modern Persians are notorious liars, who do not even claim to be believed, and smile when detected in a lie.197The nomad alone is faithful to his word; the expression, “I am a nomad,” means, “You may trust me.”198

190Bundahis, i. 24; xxviii. 14, 16.Dînâ-î Maînôg-î Khirad, xix. 4, 6; xxx. 5; xxxvi. 29. Darmesteter, inSacred Books of the East, iv. p. lxii. Spiegel,Erânische Alterthumskunde, iii. 684sq.Geiger,Civilization of the Eastern Irānians, i. 164sq.Meyer,Geschichte des Alterthums, i. 534, 536.

190Bundahis, i. 24; xxviii. 14, 16.Dînâ-î Maînôg-î Khirad, xix. 4, 6; xxx. 5; xxxvi. 29. Darmesteter, inSacred Books of the East, iv. p. lxii. Spiegel,Erânische Alterthumskunde, iii. 684sq.Geiger,Civilization of the Eastern Irānians, i. 164sq.Meyer,Geschichte des Alterthums, i. 534, 536.

191Dînâ-î Maînôg-î Khirad, xxxvii. 2sqq.

191Dînâ-î Maînôg-î Khirad, xxxvii. 2sqq.

192Vendîdâd, iv. 5sqq.

192Vendîdâd, iv. 5sqq.

193Yasts, x. 2.

193Yasts, x. 2.

194Herodotus, i. 136, 138.Cf.Stobæus,Florilegium, 44, vol. ii. 227; Xenophon,Cyri Institutio, i. 6. 33.

194Herodotus, i. 136, 138.Cf.Stobæus,Florilegium, 44, vol. ii. 227; Xenophon,Cyri Institutio, i. 6. 33.

195Rawlinson, in his translation of Herodotus, i. 262sq.n. 3.

195Rawlinson, in his translation of Herodotus, i. 262sq.n. 3.

196Spiegel,op. cit.iii. 686.

196Spiegel,op. cit.iii. 686.

197Polak,Persien, i. 10. Wallin,Reseanteckningar från Orienten, iv. 192, 247. Wilson,Persian Life and Customs, p. 229sqq.

197Polak,Persien, i. 10. Wallin,Reseanteckningar från Orienten, iv. 192, 247. Wilson,Persian Life and Customs, p. 229sqq.

198Polak,op. cit.ii. 95.

198Polak,op. cit.ii. 95.

Falsehood is a prevailing vice in other Muhammedan countries also. “Constant veracity,” says Mr. Lane, “is a virtue extremely rare in modern Egypt”; and a deceitful disposition in commercial transactions is one of the most notorious faults of the Egyptian.199Mr. Lane partly ascribes this habit to the influence of Islam, which allows, and even commands, falsehood in certain cases. The common Moslem doctrine is, that a lie is permissible when told in order to save one’s own life, or to reconcile persons at variance with each other, or to please or persuade one’s wife, or to obtain any advantage in a war with the enemies of the faith.200But in other cases lying was highly reprobated by the Prophet; and that the people have not forgotten its sinfulness appears from the phrase, “No, I beg forgiveness of God, it was so and so,” which they seldom omit when retracting an unintentional mis-statement.201I think it is erroneous to regard the want of truthfulness among Muhammedan nations as a result of their religion. The Eastern Christians and Buddhists are no less addicted to falsehood than the Muhammedans.202

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