Chapter 11

[183]See E. S. Hartland, "Primitive Paternity," Vol. I. Ch. I.[184]It is suggestive to note that, in order to make sure that Mary had no connection with men whatsoever, it was decided (Papal Bull 1853) that she did not even have a father.[185]Cp.Lorenz, "Das Titanenmotiv in der allgemeinen Mythologie,"Imago, II.[186]The very general identification of the Earth with the mother has probably played an important part in the history of human culture inasmuch as it has afforded a ready means of rendering psychic energy available for the practice of agriculture; the cultivation of the Earth's surface being from the psychological point of view a displacement of the original incestuous desires directed to the mother. On the other hand the very closeness of the association between mother and Earth has in some places led to a reluctance to till the soil, such an act being looked upon as impious (See Frazer, "Adonis, Attis, Osiris," I. 80 ff.).[187]Ultimately of course a sexual symbol.Cp.Abraham, "Traum und Mythus," 26 ff.[188]For a full treatment of the Scapegoat motive. See Frazer, "The Scapegoat."[189]The "original sin" which it is intended to remove being again not unconnected with the family complexes.[190]Cp.throughout, with regard to this subject, Freud, "Totem and Taboo," 220 ff.[191]"Religion of the Semites."[192]Op. cit.289.[193]Op. cit.294.[194]Op. cit.294.[195]Frazer, "The Dying God," 14.[196]For a most important and illuminating discussion of the psychology of eating and of the other activities of the mouth, see Abraham, "Über die frühesten prägenitalen Entwicklungsstufen der Libido,"Imago, 1916, IV.[197]Robertson Smith,op. cit., 270.[198]As Freud has pointed out ("Totem and Taboo," 147), there exists a parallelism, on the one hand between the stage of Magic and Animism and the Narcissistic level of individual development, and on the other hand between the stage of Religion and that of the first object-love as directed to the parents. In Magic man attributes omnipotence to himself, while in Religion omnipotence is transferred to the gods, or in so far as it is retained by the individual, can be exercised only through the gods; man no longer finds the satisfaction of his own needs in and through himself, but obtains his desires only through his relations with others whom he loves and venerates.In religion too however there exist, beside the object-regarding elements, certain elements which are derived from, and give expression to, the Narcissistic impulses. God is to some extent a projection of the primitive mental egocentricity and self-sufficingness which the infant enjoys before it becomes clearly conscious of the distinction between its own organism and the external world—a distinction which necessarily brings with it a gradually increasing realisation of the individual's limitations and dependence. Unwilling to give up the primitive sense of power and importance which a growing insight into reality shows to be unfounded, Man displaces on to his God the desired qualities which he can no longer attribute to himself and deludes himself into believing that he can still attain his wishes, through prayer and similar rites, by merely wishing them aloud to God. This mechanism is clearly seen at work in those persons who (like the late Kaiser Wilhelm II) treat their God as a being whose principal function it is to approve and carry to fulfilment their own ambitions, schemes and undertakings.The conception of the Devil also is to a very considerable extent derived from the Narcissistic impulses—the individualprojectingon to "the author of evil" those aspects of himself of which he disapproves (more particularly perhaps the sexual aspects). In this way he, in a sense, frees his own personality from tabooed wishes of whose operation in himself he would otherwise become unpleasantly aware, and in this way absolves himself from the responsibility for actions committed at the instigation of these wishes.These self-regarding aspects constitute without doubt a most important factor in the psychology of Religion and serve to remind us once again of the limitation of our psychological treatment. They fall outside our present theme, inasmuch as they take their origin from a mental level phylogenetically and ontogenetically prior to that at which are developed the psychic relations of the individual to his family which constitute our subject in this volume.[199]Cp.J. C. Flügel, "Freudian Mechanisms as Factors in Moral Development,"British Journal of Psychology, 1917, VIII, 477.[200]Mr. Shand's term, adopted by McDougall, is perhaps (in England at any rate) the most generally used and understood in this connection. The term Constellation is, however, used in the same sense by psycho-analytic writers. A Sentiment (or Constellation) differs from a complex only in that it manifests itself openly in consciousness, whereas the complex is unconscious.[201]Often, too, unmarried mothers; though in this case, owing to the fact that under existing social conditions children born out of wedlock cause more than the usual amount of anxiety and trouble, love is very liable to be complicated or even replaced by hate.[202]"Parents and Children."[203]Thus the analysis of dreams occurring during pregnancy would seem to show that a surprisingly large number of these have as their principal motive the death of the child which the mother carries in her womb. Nor do such death wishes on the part of the mother fail to manifest themselves on occasion in the mother's waking thoughts and actions. Abortion and attempts at abortion are of course extremely common (especially where, through ignorance, carelessness or legislative interference, the more humane method of preventive sexual intercourse is not practised), but, even after birth, attempts of one kind or another on the lives of children are by no means rare, even in civilised societies to-day. (The practice of infanticide in more primitive communities is of course notorious). I am assured by one who has good opportunities for observation on this matter that "practical child murder (by slow and safe methods) is far commoner than the newspaper reading public imagines: and it is usually the mother who attempts the process".As a milder method of disposing of an unwanted child, a mother will often attempt to leave it in some institution for the care of children. So much is this the case that almost the first question the authorities of such institutions have to ask themselves, when the mother brings a child, is whether she is trying to get rid of it.[204]Seee.g.Frazer, "Totemism and Exogamy," III, 298.[205]Seee. g.Frazer, "Totemism and Exogamy," II, 302. "Taboo and the Perils of the Soul," 370.[206]"Papers on Psycho-Analysis," 658.[207]"Studies of Childhood," 105.[208]This is sometimes shown quite openly in poor families, where the parents "don't believe in their children having a better time than they did" and where the children will not infrequently console themselves for the sufferings they endure at the hands of their parents by the thought of what they in their turn when grown up, will do to their children.Often however, the cruelty inflicted from this motive is rationalised as a desire to avoid spoiling the child and to prepare him for the rough time that he will have in later life. (Cp.this with the motives underlying the infliction of punishment at initiation ceremonies among primitive peoples, p. 83.).[209]Cp.Brill, "Psychanalysis: Its Theory and Practical Application," 279ff.[210]The identification of the child with its grandparent is of course not without effect upon the mind of the child himself, where it is reinforced by a variety of other motives, such as:—the wish to become the parent of his own parent (i. e.the corresponding notion to that in the mind of the child's parent which we have just been considering), the wish to dispense with his parent (cp.p. 109), the projection on to the grandparent of the grandiose ideas formerly entertained with regard to the parent (cp.p. 55), and finally the results of the happy relationship that often exists between child and grandparent (owing to the fact that the grandparents are as a rule less responsible for the child's upbringing and education and less stern and vigorous in the assertion of their authority). As a consequence there may arise in the child a strong tendency to imitate the grandparents—a tendency that may constitute an important factor in moulding the child's beliefs, attitudes, desires, and occupations.Cp.Ernest Jones, "Papers on Psycho-Analysis," 652, ff.[211]"Die Couvade und die Psychogenese der Vergeltungsfurcht."Imago, 1914, III.[212]As an example of an attitude obviously akin to one of the main tendencies underlying the Couvade—a desire to inflict pain upon the mother—we may mention the strong objection that was originally taken to the use of anaesthetics in midwifery, on the ground that the suffering of pain in childbirth was a just punishment for sin and that it was therefore ethically undesirable to seek to do away with or abate this pain.[213]For these reasons it would seem very undesirable to tamper to any appreciable extent with the motives that may impel a man to work for the advantage of his immediate posterity; as would be done for instance, by any prohibition to transmit property to heirs, or by any measure that too greatly diminished the value of such property, such as an excessive death duty.What seems to be to some extent the American ideal of each generation "making good" in their own persons, is of course based mainly on perfectly sound ethical and psychological considerations. There is nothing in these considerations however which is incompatible with the hereditary transmission of wealth or rank. On the contrary, it would seem to be an ennobling and inspiring ideal for each generation to start life at a somewhat higher all-round level—material and moral—than the one before it, each one adding a little to the well-being of the family in body and mind and handing on the improvement to its successor.In spite of the great advantages that may thus follow from the identification of the parent with his children, it behoves us not to overlook one possible danger that may ensue from it, if carried to excess. An individual's actions affect posterity, not only in the persons of his own offspring, but also by their influence on the history of humanity at large; and it would be highly undesirable if, while contemplating the benefit of his own family, an individual ceased to bear in mind his duties to the wider circles of his social environment. The deeds of great men obviously determine to a considerable extent the future of the race. It is however the privilege of all of us to contribute to this history to some degree; hence an enlightened morality must needs emphasise the responsibility that is incurred in this respect even by the humblest, since, by his actions during life, he has to some extent made himself immortal, and influenced the world through all time for good or ill.[214]It may be well to bear in mind in this connection Mr. Bernard Shaw's striking words from his brilliant essay on Parents and Children (the whole of which deserves most careful reading). On the subject of marriage from the point of view of the parents, he writes with his usual penetration and with a generous understanding of the real difficulties of the situation:—"Take a very common instance of this agonizing incompatibility" (between the point of view of parents and that of the children). "A widow brings up her son to manhood. He meets a strange woman, goes off with and marries her, leaving his mother desolate. It does not occur to him that this is at all hard on her; he does it as a matter of course, and actually expects his mother to receive on terms of special affection, the woman for whom she has been abandoned. If he shewed any sense of what he was doing, any remorse; if he mingled his tears with hers, and asked her not to think too hardly of him because he had obeyed the inevitable destiny of a man to leave his father and mother and cleave to his wife, she could give him her blessing and accept her bereavement with dignity and without reproach. But the man never dreams of such considerations. To him his mother's feeling in the matter, when she betrays it, is unreasonable, ridiculous and even odious, as shewing a prejudice against his adorable bride."I have taken the widow as an extreme and obvious case; but there are many husbands and wives who are tired of their consorts, or disappointed in them, or estranged from them by infidelities; and these parents, in losing a son or a daughter through marriage, may be losing everything they care for. No parent's love is as innocent as the love of a child; the exclusion of all conscious sexual feeling from it does not exclude the bitterness, jealousy, and despair at loss which characterize sexual passion; in fact, what is called a pure love may easily be more selfish and jealous than a carnal one. Anyhow, it is plain matter of fact that naively selfish people sometimes try with fierce jealousy to prevent their children marrying." p. XXXVIII.[215]Cp.Jung, "Collected Papers on Analytical Psychology," 156 ff. On the other hand in cases where, as in those we considered above, the parent identifies himself with his children, he is very likely to experience a strong attachment to the marital partners of his children.[216]Though we ought possibly to make an exception here in the case of that fear which seems to arise as the result of a transformation of sexual impulses. On the other hand, it is possible that this too may be brought under the more general formula, if we recognise that the fear is in this case directed not to some outer object but to some threatening element within the mind. For a discussion of this matter see Freud, "Vorlesungen zur Einführung in die Psychoanalyse," 466 ff. For a most important discussion of the fundamental nature and conditions of love and hate and of the different causes from which they originate, see Freud, "Sammlung kleiner Schriften zur Neurosenlehre," IV, 270 ff.[217]W. Wundt, "Elements of Folk Psychology," trans. by E. L. Schaub, 1916, 116 ff.[218]It is of course true that with a system of group marriage the opportunities for sexual relations among young people may sometimes be no greater than under monogamy, since all the available women may be regarded as belonging exclusively to a certain class of men—usually those who have attained a certain age. The hatred and jealousy aroused in the young men towards their elders may in such cases be equal in intensity to those felt under monogamic conditions, but the fact remains that this hatred is no longer intimately connected with thefamily(at any rate as we understand that institution at the present day).[219]Wundt.Op. cit.34 ff.[220]Wundt.Op. cit.311 ff.[221]This is of course specially the case where the moral code upheld by the parents is one of unnecessary or extreme severity, in which almost every natural manifestation of youthful joy, or vitality is condemned; as is sometimes the case, for instance, with parents of an ultra-puritanical way of thinking, whose own mental life, however admirable in other respects, has been warped by excessive inhibitions. Although marked perhaps by less bitterness than is usual in such cases, Edmund Gosse's remarkable work "Father and Son" affords much interesting ground for thought in this connection.[222]e. g."Zur Einführung des Narzißmus."Jahrbuch der Psychoanalyse, 1914, VI, 5 ff.[223]Psychiatric Bulletin, I, No. 1; "The Psychology of War," 49.[224]"Instincts of the Herd in Peace and War," 79 ff.[225]"The Psychology of Insanity," 167 ff.[226]Cp.in this connection Abraham, "Untersuchungen über die früheste prägenitale Entwicklungstufe der Libido",Zeitschrift für ärztliche Psychoanalyse, 1916, IV. Also Freud, "Sammlung kleiner Schriften zur Neurosenlehre", IV, 274.[227]"Social Psychology", 91.[228]Cp. T. Burrow, "The Genesis and Meaning of Homosexuality and its relation to the problem of introverted mental states."Psychoanalytic Review, IV. 272.[229]We have already (p. 90) given certain examples of that most common form of incest, the connection of brother and sister. We may here refer briefly to a few further instances, more especially to those in which there occurs the more intimate connection between parents and children. Such instances would seem to have been observed with especial frequency among the Indians of North America. Thus Samuel Hearne, writing in 1795, tells us of the Chippewayans that "it is notoriously known that many of them cohabit occasionally with their own mothers and frequently espouse their sisters and daughters. I have known several of them who, after having lived in that state with their daughters, have given them to their sons and all parties have been perfectly reconciled to it." ("Journey to the Northern Ocean," 1795, 130). Eighty years later Bancroft tells us much the same of the Kadiaks ("The Native Races of the Pacific States of North America," 1875, I, 81). An observer of about the same period writes concerning the eastern tribes of the Tinnehs that "instances of men united to their mothers, their sisters or their daughters are far from rare. I have heard among them of two sons keeping their mother as a common wife, of another wedded to his daughter, while in cases of polygamy having two sisters to wife is very usual." ("Annual Report of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution," 1867, 310).In South America too the practice of incest of this kind would appear to have been fairly frequently observed. Thus in Brazil the Indians of the Isanna river "marry one, two or three wives and prefer relations, marrying with cousins, uncles with nieces, nephews with aunts, so that in a village all are connected" (A. R. Wallace, "Travels in the Amazon and Rio Negro," 1889, 352). Commenting on this report, Frazer adds that "in this preference for marriage with blood relations the Indians of the Isanna agree with other Indian tribes of South America, especially of Brazil" ("Totemism and Exogamy," III, 575). Concerning this same part of the world, another traveller says that "in general it may be asserted that incest in all degrees is of frequent occurrence among the numerous tribes and hordes on the Amazon and the Rio Negro" (See Martius, "Zur Ethnographie Amerikas, zumal Brasiliens," 1867, 116). Of the Peruvian aborigines we are told by an earlier authority that they "follow their own desires without excepting sister, daughter or mother. Others excepted their mother but none else" (Garcilasso de la Vega, First part of the "Royal Commentaries of the Yncas," trans. by C. R. Markham, 1869-71, I, 58).Similar observations have been made by travellers among primitive peoples in many other parts of the world. Thus with the Karens of Tenasserim "matrimonial alliances between brother and sister or father and daughter are not uncommon" (Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Bengal, VII, 856). In Africa "the kings of Gonzalves and Gaboon are accustomed to marry their grown-up daughters and the queens marry their eldest sons" (A. Bastian, "Der Mensch in der Geschichte," 1860, III, 293). In a district of Celebes "father and daughter, mother and son, brother and sister frequently lived together in bonds of matrimony" (S. J. Hickson, "A Naturalist in North Celebes," 1889, 277). With the Kalangs (probably the aborigines of Java) "mother and son often live together as man and wife, and it is a belief that prosperity and riches flow from such a union" (E. Ketjen, De Kalangers,Tijdschrift von Indische Taal-Land en Volkenkunde, 1877, XXIV, 427). Very similar practices have been reported from New Guinea (Rev. J. Chalmers, "Notes on the Natives of Kiwai,"Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute, XXXI, II, 1903, 124), the Indian Archipelago (Wilken, Over de Verwantschap en het huwelijks en enfrechts bij de volken van het maleische ras, 1883, 277), and Melanesia (Frazer, "Totemism and Exogamy," II, 118).But it must not be supposed that the frequent practice of incest is confined to primitive races. Although in civilised communities regarded with almost universal condemnation, incest has probably always existed to some extent among certain sections of the population and the practice of incest among modern white races is undoubtedly much more prevalent than is commonly supposed. A well known British psycho-analyst assures me that in the exercise of their profession he and his colleagues hear with astonishing frequency of cases of incest, the report of which is otherwise suppressed. Particularly is this so as regards children. At the present day however, incest undoubtedly occurs most frequently among the poorer classes, where want of adequate housing accommodation renders the temptation greater. It is startling to note in this connection that, according to the Chicago Vice Commission, out of a group of 103 girls examined, no less than 51 reported that they had received their first sexual experience at the hands of their father ("The Social Evil in Chicago," 1911, quoted by W. A. White, "Mechanisms of Character Formation," 1916, 163). Even if we allow a liberal margin for incorrect or exaggerated statements (in this case of course, instances of wish-fulfilment), these figures would seem to afford astonishing evidence as to the prevalence of incest of the father-daughter type in the towns of America. In this country there is reason to believe that similar occurrences are far from being uncommon (cp. "Downward Paths", 20)[230]Cp. Frazer, "Totemism and Exogamy," IV, 112 ff.[231]"Native Tribes of Central Australia," 419.[232]Frazer, "Totemism and Exogamy," I, 242 ff.[233]Idem, op. cit., IV, 297, quoting Rev. S. Endle.[234]Idem, op. cit., II, 636.[235]Idem, op. cit., III, 340.[236]Op. cit., IV, 138.[237]"Among whom death alone separates husband and wife". John Bailey, "An Account of the Wild Tribes of the Veddahs of Ceylon." Trans. of the Ethnological Society, N. S. II, 1863, 293.[238]Westermarck, "History of Human Marriage", 507.[239]Idem, loc. cit.[240]Idem, loc. cit.[241]Wundt, "Elements of Folk Psychology", 48, 50.[242]Idem, loc. cit.[243]Idem, loc. cit.[244]Cp. E. S. Hartland, "Primitive Paternity", II, 254, ff.[245]It is not perhaps quite easy to see what can be the psychic mechanism in virtue of which men should be attracted to blood relations strictly as such, though to the present writer it would seem to be a possibility which should not be entirely lost sight of. Such a tendency may perhaps have arisen: (1) as the result of some vague and unconscious sense of affinity, similarity or harmony, based perhaps on an unconscious memory impression of pre-natal life (in the case of child and mother or of twins), or upon some other condition of a psychical, physiological or chemical order; (2) at a higher level through the action of perceived physical or psychical resemblance, these in turn playing on the Narcissistic components of the love impulse.[246]"La Prohibition de l'inceste et ses origines,"L'Année Sociologique, I, 1890, 55 ff.[247]Cp. Frazer, "Totemism and Exogamy", IV, 100 ff.[248]"History of Human Marriage," 320 ff.[249]A difficulty in connection with Westermarck's theory is concerned with the question as to how an aversion to sexual intercourse between those who have lived from infancy together changed to a similar aversion between blood relatives. How is it, if the original aversion was of the former kind, that it has left but little trace of its existence, while the aversion to marriage between blood relatives, which is supposed to have been derived from it, is grown so strong? It would seem as if the theory would perhaps have to be modified so as to postulate the existence of an original aversion to the marriage of blood relatives, as such; though of course this only opens up the fresh difficulty of accounting for the manner in which such an aversion could arise. We are here faced with the same problem that we have already encountered in the case of the positive aspects of the love impulse between relatives (p. 198 footnote).[250]If this were not the case, we might well ask with other critics why a natural instinct to avoid incestuous relations should need the reinforcement of legal penalties and prohibitions.[251]For a discussion of the question of inbreeding in the present connection, see Frazer, "Totemism and Exogamy", IV. 160 ff.[252]"Inbreeding and Outbreeding", Monographs on Experimental Biology, 1919.[253]Supposing that natural selection does exercise some influence of the kind indicated, such influence does not of course, here any more than elsewhere, necessarily imply any appreciation of the nature of the causes at work. On the contrary, as some authorities have pointed out, it is scarcely possible to ascribe to primitive man any conscious realisation of the ill effects of inbreeding (if these exist). These ill effects manifest themselves much too slowly to be observed by the savage with his relatively short memory and his lack of interest in remote events, especially when, as has often been the case, there has been uncertainty as to the nature of paternity. Even if the savage were able to realise the nature of this hereditary influence, it is pretty clear that his actions and feelings would be but little affected thereby, for it is one of the most general characteristics of the primitive mind that it takes but small account of distant consequences, whereas Eugenics involves the appreciation of such consequences in a high degree.[254]"Elements of Folk Psychology", 151.[255]"Studies in Ancient History" (2nd. ed.) 160.[256]"Principles of Sociology", I, 619.[257]"The Origin of Civilisation", 135 ff.[258]"Indisches Ehe- und Familienrecht",Zeitschrift für vergleichende Rechtswissenschaft, III, 1882, 361.[259]Atkinson and Andrew Lang, "The Primal Law."[260]A full discussion of these theories will be found in Westermarck's "History of Human Marriage" and Frazer's "Totemism and Exogamy".[261]Whatever real truth there may be in this argument, we must not fail to bear in mind that it is admirably adapted for use as a "rationalisation",i. e.the fear of evil consequences (dysgenic or other) from marriages between young and old may well be a conscious (and, in a sense, artificial) substitute for the unconscious aversion to such marriages on the ground of their being an indirect expression of incestuous desires. We must therefore be on our guard against the tendency to overemphasise this argument in the absence of adequate objective evidence.[262]It is round this point of course, as we have above shown, that the differences of opinion between Freud and Jung have largely centred.[263]That some such factors as these are probably really operative in addition to the more specific sexual inhibitions that compose the incest barrier proper, is shown by a consideration of cases in which no such specific inhibition exists,e. g.that of husband and wife. In spite of the fact that sexual relations between husband and wife are not only permitted but enjoined and that mutual sexual attractiveness has usually played some considerable part in bringing about the union, there can be little doubt that in very many cases a husband and wife, after a certain period of married life, tend to find—superficially at any rate—greater sexual attractiveness in strangers than in one another. The reasons for this (in the absence of any other adequate cause) are often fairly clearly of the kind described—first, the fact that their associations with one another are largely connected with the "humdrum" activities of everyday life in which non-sexual instincts are principally concerned (whereas with strangers the sexual feelings may constitute the predominant, or perhaps the only, bond); secondly the fact that through the very intimacy of their connection there are (as in the case of blood relatives) a number of matters as regards which the husband and wife are competitors or have conflicting interests, thus leading to a certain degree of (usually more or less repressed) hostility on either side.[264]The reasons for the existence of a general sexual repression, over and above the incest inhibition, and the psychological mechanisms by which this repression is brought about, form a vast and highly important theme on which there exists at present but little general agreement and which, being only indirectly connected with our subject, need fortunately not be entered into here. It is perhaps worth while to point out however in passing, that some of the factors which are responsible for the more general sexual repression are, in all probability, similar to those which we have considered in connection with the production of incest inhibition. Thus there would seem to exist an antagonism between a highly developed and intensive sexuality and those wider social bonds in virtue of which alone the larger human communities are possible. It is on the basis of the manifestations of this antagonism that some writers—as already mentioned—hold that the chief motive forces which are active in sexual repression are to be found in the instincts of the herd. Still more marked perhaps is the antagonism between sex and individuation. It has long been recognised, and modern psychological researches have pretty definitely proved, that many of the more complex desires and activities of the individual—desires and activities upon which human culture ultimately depends—are built up upon sublimations of the sexual tendencies. All these sublimations involve a deflection of sexual energy from its original and primitive direction—a deflection which occurs for the most part or entirely as the result of conflict with the sexual tendencies when thus primitively directed.As regards the motive forces engaged in this conflict, there is again at present much uncertainty, but they probably to some extent differ from one case to another. The conflict would seem to be waged, sometimes between two aspects of the sexual impulse,e. g.between Narcissism and object-love or between physical desire and tender affection (when these elements have been dissociated in the ways we have already studied). In other cases the gregarious instincts are probably engaged in the manner suggested by Trotter and others; while, in still other instances, there may be an antagonism between the sexual impulses and the tendencies of self-assertion, self-respect or self-preservation, as emphasised especially by Freud. For a more general discussion of the factors concerned in sexual inhibition, see E. Bleuler, "Der Sexualwiderstand",Jahrbuch für psychoanalytische und psychopathologische Forschungen, 1913, V, 442, and J. C. Flügel, "On the Biological Basis of Sexual Repression and its Sociological Significance",British Journal of Psychology(Medical Section), 1921, I, 225.

[183]See E. S. Hartland, "Primitive Paternity," Vol. I. Ch. I.

[184]It is suggestive to note that, in order to make sure that Mary had no connection with men whatsoever, it was decided (Papal Bull 1853) that she did not even have a father.

[185]Cp.Lorenz, "Das Titanenmotiv in der allgemeinen Mythologie,"Imago, II.

[186]The very general identification of the Earth with the mother has probably played an important part in the history of human culture inasmuch as it has afforded a ready means of rendering psychic energy available for the practice of agriculture; the cultivation of the Earth's surface being from the psychological point of view a displacement of the original incestuous desires directed to the mother. On the other hand the very closeness of the association between mother and Earth has in some places led to a reluctance to till the soil, such an act being looked upon as impious (See Frazer, "Adonis, Attis, Osiris," I. 80 ff.).

[187]Ultimately of course a sexual symbol.Cp.Abraham, "Traum und Mythus," 26 ff.

[188]For a full treatment of the Scapegoat motive. See Frazer, "The Scapegoat."

[189]The "original sin" which it is intended to remove being again not unconnected with the family complexes.

[190]Cp.throughout, with regard to this subject, Freud, "Totem and Taboo," 220 ff.

[191]"Religion of the Semites."

[192]Op. cit.289.

[193]Op. cit.294.

[194]Op. cit.294.

[195]Frazer, "The Dying God," 14.

[196]For a most important and illuminating discussion of the psychology of eating and of the other activities of the mouth, see Abraham, "Über die frühesten prägenitalen Entwicklungsstufen der Libido,"Imago, 1916, IV.

[197]Robertson Smith,op. cit., 270.

[198]As Freud has pointed out ("Totem and Taboo," 147), there exists a parallelism, on the one hand between the stage of Magic and Animism and the Narcissistic level of individual development, and on the other hand between the stage of Religion and that of the first object-love as directed to the parents. In Magic man attributes omnipotence to himself, while in Religion omnipotence is transferred to the gods, or in so far as it is retained by the individual, can be exercised only through the gods; man no longer finds the satisfaction of his own needs in and through himself, but obtains his desires only through his relations with others whom he loves and venerates.In religion too however there exist, beside the object-regarding elements, certain elements which are derived from, and give expression to, the Narcissistic impulses. God is to some extent a projection of the primitive mental egocentricity and self-sufficingness which the infant enjoys before it becomes clearly conscious of the distinction between its own organism and the external world—a distinction which necessarily brings with it a gradually increasing realisation of the individual's limitations and dependence. Unwilling to give up the primitive sense of power and importance which a growing insight into reality shows to be unfounded, Man displaces on to his God the desired qualities which he can no longer attribute to himself and deludes himself into believing that he can still attain his wishes, through prayer and similar rites, by merely wishing them aloud to God. This mechanism is clearly seen at work in those persons who (like the late Kaiser Wilhelm II) treat their God as a being whose principal function it is to approve and carry to fulfilment their own ambitions, schemes and undertakings.The conception of the Devil also is to a very considerable extent derived from the Narcissistic impulses—the individualprojectingon to "the author of evil" those aspects of himself of which he disapproves (more particularly perhaps the sexual aspects). In this way he, in a sense, frees his own personality from tabooed wishes of whose operation in himself he would otherwise become unpleasantly aware, and in this way absolves himself from the responsibility for actions committed at the instigation of these wishes.These self-regarding aspects constitute without doubt a most important factor in the psychology of Religion and serve to remind us once again of the limitation of our psychological treatment. They fall outside our present theme, inasmuch as they take their origin from a mental level phylogenetically and ontogenetically prior to that at which are developed the psychic relations of the individual to his family which constitute our subject in this volume.

In religion too however there exist, beside the object-regarding elements, certain elements which are derived from, and give expression to, the Narcissistic impulses. God is to some extent a projection of the primitive mental egocentricity and self-sufficingness which the infant enjoys before it becomes clearly conscious of the distinction between its own organism and the external world—a distinction which necessarily brings with it a gradually increasing realisation of the individual's limitations and dependence. Unwilling to give up the primitive sense of power and importance which a growing insight into reality shows to be unfounded, Man displaces on to his God the desired qualities which he can no longer attribute to himself and deludes himself into believing that he can still attain his wishes, through prayer and similar rites, by merely wishing them aloud to God. This mechanism is clearly seen at work in those persons who (like the late Kaiser Wilhelm II) treat their God as a being whose principal function it is to approve and carry to fulfilment their own ambitions, schemes and undertakings.

The conception of the Devil also is to a very considerable extent derived from the Narcissistic impulses—the individualprojectingon to "the author of evil" those aspects of himself of which he disapproves (more particularly perhaps the sexual aspects). In this way he, in a sense, frees his own personality from tabooed wishes of whose operation in himself he would otherwise become unpleasantly aware, and in this way absolves himself from the responsibility for actions committed at the instigation of these wishes.

These self-regarding aspects constitute without doubt a most important factor in the psychology of Religion and serve to remind us once again of the limitation of our psychological treatment. They fall outside our present theme, inasmuch as they take their origin from a mental level phylogenetically and ontogenetically prior to that at which are developed the psychic relations of the individual to his family which constitute our subject in this volume.

[199]Cp.J. C. Flügel, "Freudian Mechanisms as Factors in Moral Development,"British Journal of Psychology, 1917, VIII, 477.

[200]Mr. Shand's term, adopted by McDougall, is perhaps (in England at any rate) the most generally used and understood in this connection. The term Constellation is, however, used in the same sense by psycho-analytic writers. A Sentiment (or Constellation) differs from a complex only in that it manifests itself openly in consciousness, whereas the complex is unconscious.

[201]Often, too, unmarried mothers; though in this case, owing to the fact that under existing social conditions children born out of wedlock cause more than the usual amount of anxiety and trouble, love is very liable to be complicated or even replaced by hate.

[202]"Parents and Children."

[203]Thus the analysis of dreams occurring during pregnancy would seem to show that a surprisingly large number of these have as their principal motive the death of the child which the mother carries in her womb. Nor do such death wishes on the part of the mother fail to manifest themselves on occasion in the mother's waking thoughts and actions. Abortion and attempts at abortion are of course extremely common (especially where, through ignorance, carelessness or legislative interference, the more humane method of preventive sexual intercourse is not practised), but, even after birth, attempts of one kind or another on the lives of children are by no means rare, even in civilised societies to-day. (The practice of infanticide in more primitive communities is of course notorious). I am assured by one who has good opportunities for observation on this matter that "practical child murder (by slow and safe methods) is far commoner than the newspaper reading public imagines: and it is usually the mother who attempts the process".As a milder method of disposing of an unwanted child, a mother will often attempt to leave it in some institution for the care of children. So much is this the case that almost the first question the authorities of such institutions have to ask themselves, when the mother brings a child, is whether she is trying to get rid of it.

As a milder method of disposing of an unwanted child, a mother will often attempt to leave it in some institution for the care of children. So much is this the case that almost the first question the authorities of such institutions have to ask themselves, when the mother brings a child, is whether she is trying to get rid of it.

[204]Seee.g.Frazer, "Totemism and Exogamy," III, 298.

[205]Seee. g.Frazer, "Totemism and Exogamy," II, 302. "Taboo and the Perils of the Soul," 370.

[206]"Papers on Psycho-Analysis," 658.

[207]"Studies of Childhood," 105.

[208]This is sometimes shown quite openly in poor families, where the parents "don't believe in their children having a better time than they did" and where the children will not infrequently console themselves for the sufferings they endure at the hands of their parents by the thought of what they in their turn when grown up, will do to their children.Often however, the cruelty inflicted from this motive is rationalised as a desire to avoid spoiling the child and to prepare him for the rough time that he will have in later life. (Cp.this with the motives underlying the infliction of punishment at initiation ceremonies among primitive peoples, p. 83.).

Often however, the cruelty inflicted from this motive is rationalised as a desire to avoid spoiling the child and to prepare him for the rough time that he will have in later life. (Cp.this with the motives underlying the infliction of punishment at initiation ceremonies among primitive peoples, p. 83.).

[209]Cp.Brill, "Psychanalysis: Its Theory and Practical Application," 279ff.

[210]The identification of the child with its grandparent is of course not without effect upon the mind of the child himself, where it is reinforced by a variety of other motives, such as:—the wish to become the parent of his own parent (i. e.the corresponding notion to that in the mind of the child's parent which we have just been considering), the wish to dispense with his parent (cp.p. 109), the projection on to the grandparent of the grandiose ideas formerly entertained with regard to the parent (cp.p. 55), and finally the results of the happy relationship that often exists between child and grandparent (owing to the fact that the grandparents are as a rule less responsible for the child's upbringing and education and less stern and vigorous in the assertion of their authority). As a consequence there may arise in the child a strong tendency to imitate the grandparents—a tendency that may constitute an important factor in moulding the child's beliefs, attitudes, desires, and occupations.Cp.Ernest Jones, "Papers on Psycho-Analysis," 652, ff.

[211]"Die Couvade und die Psychogenese der Vergeltungsfurcht."Imago, 1914, III.

[212]As an example of an attitude obviously akin to one of the main tendencies underlying the Couvade—a desire to inflict pain upon the mother—we may mention the strong objection that was originally taken to the use of anaesthetics in midwifery, on the ground that the suffering of pain in childbirth was a just punishment for sin and that it was therefore ethically undesirable to seek to do away with or abate this pain.

[213]For these reasons it would seem very undesirable to tamper to any appreciable extent with the motives that may impel a man to work for the advantage of his immediate posterity; as would be done for instance, by any prohibition to transmit property to heirs, or by any measure that too greatly diminished the value of such property, such as an excessive death duty.What seems to be to some extent the American ideal of each generation "making good" in their own persons, is of course based mainly on perfectly sound ethical and psychological considerations. There is nothing in these considerations however which is incompatible with the hereditary transmission of wealth or rank. On the contrary, it would seem to be an ennobling and inspiring ideal for each generation to start life at a somewhat higher all-round level—material and moral—than the one before it, each one adding a little to the well-being of the family in body and mind and handing on the improvement to its successor.In spite of the great advantages that may thus follow from the identification of the parent with his children, it behoves us not to overlook one possible danger that may ensue from it, if carried to excess. An individual's actions affect posterity, not only in the persons of his own offspring, but also by their influence on the history of humanity at large; and it would be highly undesirable if, while contemplating the benefit of his own family, an individual ceased to bear in mind his duties to the wider circles of his social environment. The deeds of great men obviously determine to a considerable extent the future of the race. It is however the privilege of all of us to contribute to this history to some degree; hence an enlightened morality must needs emphasise the responsibility that is incurred in this respect even by the humblest, since, by his actions during life, he has to some extent made himself immortal, and influenced the world through all time for good or ill.

What seems to be to some extent the American ideal of each generation "making good" in their own persons, is of course based mainly on perfectly sound ethical and psychological considerations. There is nothing in these considerations however which is incompatible with the hereditary transmission of wealth or rank. On the contrary, it would seem to be an ennobling and inspiring ideal for each generation to start life at a somewhat higher all-round level—material and moral—than the one before it, each one adding a little to the well-being of the family in body and mind and handing on the improvement to its successor.

In spite of the great advantages that may thus follow from the identification of the parent with his children, it behoves us not to overlook one possible danger that may ensue from it, if carried to excess. An individual's actions affect posterity, not only in the persons of his own offspring, but also by their influence on the history of humanity at large; and it would be highly undesirable if, while contemplating the benefit of his own family, an individual ceased to bear in mind his duties to the wider circles of his social environment. The deeds of great men obviously determine to a considerable extent the future of the race. It is however the privilege of all of us to contribute to this history to some degree; hence an enlightened morality must needs emphasise the responsibility that is incurred in this respect even by the humblest, since, by his actions during life, he has to some extent made himself immortal, and influenced the world through all time for good or ill.

[214]It may be well to bear in mind in this connection Mr. Bernard Shaw's striking words from his brilliant essay on Parents and Children (the whole of which deserves most careful reading). On the subject of marriage from the point of view of the parents, he writes with his usual penetration and with a generous understanding of the real difficulties of the situation:—"Take a very common instance of this agonizing incompatibility" (between the point of view of parents and that of the children). "A widow brings up her son to manhood. He meets a strange woman, goes off with and marries her, leaving his mother desolate. It does not occur to him that this is at all hard on her; he does it as a matter of course, and actually expects his mother to receive on terms of special affection, the woman for whom she has been abandoned. If he shewed any sense of what he was doing, any remorse; if he mingled his tears with hers, and asked her not to think too hardly of him because he had obeyed the inevitable destiny of a man to leave his father and mother and cleave to his wife, she could give him her blessing and accept her bereavement with dignity and without reproach. But the man never dreams of such considerations. To him his mother's feeling in the matter, when she betrays it, is unreasonable, ridiculous and even odious, as shewing a prejudice against his adorable bride."I have taken the widow as an extreme and obvious case; but there are many husbands and wives who are tired of their consorts, or disappointed in them, or estranged from them by infidelities; and these parents, in losing a son or a daughter through marriage, may be losing everything they care for. No parent's love is as innocent as the love of a child; the exclusion of all conscious sexual feeling from it does not exclude the bitterness, jealousy, and despair at loss which characterize sexual passion; in fact, what is called a pure love may easily be more selfish and jealous than a carnal one. Anyhow, it is plain matter of fact that naively selfish people sometimes try with fierce jealousy to prevent their children marrying." p. XXXVIII.

"I have taken the widow as an extreme and obvious case; but there are many husbands and wives who are tired of their consorts, or disappointed in them, or estranged from them by infidelities; and these parents, in losing a son or a daughter through marriage, may be losing everything they care for. No parent's love is as innocent as the love of a child; the exclusion of all conscious sexual feeling from it does not exclude the bitterness, jealousy, and despair at loss which characterize sexual passion; in fact, what is called a pure love may easily be more selfish and jealous than a carnal one. Anyhow, it is plain matter of fact that naively selfish people sometimes try with fierce jealousy to prevent their children marrying." p. XXXVIII.

[215]Cp.Jung, "Collected Papers on Analytical Psychology," 156 ff. On the other hand in cases where, as in those we considered above, the parent identifies himself with his children, he is very likely to experience a strong attachment to the marital partners of his children.

[216]Though we ought possibly to make an exception here in the case of that fear which seems to arise as the result of a transformation of sexual impulses. On the other hand, it is possible that this too may be brought under the more general formula, if we recognise that the fear is in this case directed not to some outer object but to some threatening element within the mind. For a discussion of this matter see Freud, "Vorlesungen zur Einführung in die Psychoanalyse," 466 ff. For a most important discussion of the fundamental nature and conditions of love and hate and of the different causes from which they originate, see Freud, "Sammlung kleiner Schriften zur Neurosenlehre," IV, 270 ff.

[217]W. Wundt, "Elements of Folk Psychology," trans. by E. L. Schaub, 1916, 116 ff.

[218]It is of course true that with a system of group marriage the opportunities for sexual relations among young people may sometimes be no greater than under monogamy, since all the available women may be regarded as belonging exclusively to a certain class of men—usually those who have attained a certain age. The hatred and jealousy aroused in the young men towards their elders may in such cases be equal in intensity to those felt under monogamic conditions, but the fact remains that this hatred is no longer intimately connected with thefamily(at any rate as we understand that institution at the present day).

[219]Wundt.Op. cit.34 ff.

[220]Wundt.Op. cit.311 ff.

[221]This is of course specially the case where the moral code upheld by the parents is one of unnecessary or extreme severity, in which almost every natural manifestation of youthful joy, or vitality is condemned; as is sometimes the case, for instance, with parents of an ultra-puritanical way of thinking, whose own mental life, however admirable in other respects, has been warped by excessive inhibitions. Although marked perhaps by less bitterness than is usual in such cases, Edmund Gosse's remarkable work "Father and Son" affords much interesting ground for thought in this connection.

[222]e. g."Zur Einführung des Narzißmus."Jahrbuch der Psychoanalyse, 1914, VI, 5 ff.

[223]Psychiatric Bulletin, I, No. 1; "The Psychology of War," 49.

[224]"Instincts of the Herd in Peace and War," 79 ff.

[225]"The Psychology of Insanity," 167 ff.

[226]Cp.in this connection Abraham, "Untersuchungen über die früheste prägenitale Entwicklungstufe der Libido",Zeitschrift für ärztliche Psychoanalyse, 1916, IV. Also Freud, "Sammlung kleiner Schriften zur Neurosenlehre", IV, 274.

[227]"Social Psychology", 91.

[228]Cp. T. Burrow, "The Genesis and Meaning of Homosexuality and its relation to the problem of introverted mental states."Psychoanalytic Review, IV. 272.

[229]We have already (p. 90) given certain examples of that most common form of incest, the connection of brother and sister. We may here refer briefly to a few further instances, more especially to those in which there occurs the more intimate connection between parents and children. Such instances would seem to have been observed with especial frequency among the Indians of North America. Thus Samuel Hearne, writing in 1795, tells us of the Chippewayans that "it is notoriously known that many of them cohabit occasionally with their own mothers and frequently espouse their sisters and daughters. I have known several of them who, after having lived in that state with their daughters, have given them to their sons and all parties have been perfectly reconciled to it." ("Journey to the Northern Ocean," 1795, 130). Eighty years later Bancroft tells us much the same of the Kadiaks ("The Native Races of the Pacific States of North America," 1875, I, 81). An observer of about the same period writes concerning the eastern tribes of the Tinnehs that "instances of men united to their mothers, their sisters or their daughters are far from rare. I have heard among them of two sons keeping their mother as a common wife, of another wedded to his daughter, while in cases of polygamy having two sisters to wife is very usual." ("Annual Report of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution," 1867, 310).In South America too the practice of incest of this kind would appear to have been fairly frequently observed. Thus in Brazil the Indians of the Isanna river "marry one, two or three wives and prefer relations, marrying with cousins, uncles with nieces, nephews with aunts, so that in a village all are connected" (A. R. Wallace, "Travels in the Amazon and Rio Negro," 1889, 352). Commenting on this report, Frazer adds that "in this preference for marriage with blood relations the Indians of the Isanna agree with other Indian tribes of South America, especially of Brazil" ("Totemism and Exogamy," III, 575). Concerning this same part of the world, another traveller says that "in general it may be asserted that incest in all degrees is of frequent occurrence among the numerous tribes and hordes on the Amazon and the Rio Negro" (See Martius, "Zur Ethnographie Amerikas, zumal Brasiliens," 1867, 116). Of the Peruvian aborigines we are told by an earlier authority that they "follow their own desires without excepting sister, daughter or mother. Others excepted their mother but none else" (Garcilasso de la Vega, First part of the "Royal Commentaries of the Yncas," trans. by C. R. Markham, 1869-71, I, 58).Similar observations have been made by travellers among primitive peoples in many other parts of the world. Thus with the Karens of Tenasserim "matrimonial alliances between brother and sister or father and daughter are not uncommon" (Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Bengal, VII, 856). In Africa "the kings of Gonzalves and Gaboon are accustomed to marry their grown-up daughters and the queens marry their eldest sons" (A. Bastian, "Der Mensch in der Geschichte," 1860, III, 293). In a district of Celebes "father and daughter, mother and son, brother and sister frequently lived together in bonds of matrimony" (S. J. Hickson, "A Naturalist in North Celebes," 1889, 277). With the Kalangs (probably the aborigines of Java) "mother and son often live together as man and wife, and it is a belief that prosperity and riches flow from such a union" (E. Ketjen, De Kalangers,Tijdschrift von Indische Taal-Land en Volkenkunde, 1877, XXIV, 427). Very similar practices have been reported from New Guinea (Rev. J. Chalmers, "Notes on the Natives of Kiwai,"Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute, XXXI, II, 1903, 124), the Indian Archipelago (Wilken, Over de Verwantschap en het huwelijks en enfrechts bij de volken van het maleische ras, 1883, 277), and Melanesia (Frazer, "Totemism and Exogamy," II, 118).But it must not be supposed that the frequent practice of incest is confined to primitive races. Although in civilised communities regarded with almost universal condemnation, incest has probably always existed to some extent among certain sections of the population and the practice of incest among modern white races is undoubtedly much more prevalent than is commonly supposed. A well known British psycho-analyst assures me that in the exercise of their profession he and his colleagues hear with astonishing frequency of cases of incest, the report of which is otherwise suppressed. Particularly is this so as regards children. At the present day however, incest undoubtedly occurs most frequently among the poorer classes, where want of adequate housing accommodation renders the temptation greater. It is startling to note in this connection that, according to the Chicago Vice Commission, out of a group of 103 girls examined, no less than 51 reported that they had received their first sexual experience at the hands of their father ("The Social Evil in Chicago," 1911, quoted by W. A. White, "Mechanisms of Character Formation," 1916, 163). Even if we allow a liberal margin for incorrect or exaggerated statements (in this case of course, instances of wish-fulfilment), these figures would seem to afford astonishing evidence as to the prevalence of incest of the father-daughter type in the towns of America. In this country there is reason to believe that similar occurrences are far from being uncommon (cp. "Downward Paths", 20)

In South America too the practice of incest of this kind would appear to have been fairly frequently observed. Thus in Brazil the Indians of the Isanna river "marry one, two or three wives and prefer relations, marrying with cousins, uncles with nieces, nephews with aunts, so that in a village all are connected" (A. R. Wallace, "Travels in the Amazon and Rio Negro," 1889, 352). Commenting on this report, Frazer adds that "in this preference for marriage with blood relations the Indians of the Isanna agree with other Indian tribes of South America, especially of Brazil" ("Totemism and Exogamy," III, 575). Concerning this same part of the world, another traveller says that "in general it may be asserted that incest in all degrees is of frequent occurrence among the numerous tribes and hordes on the Amazon and the Rio Negro" (See Martius, "Zur Ethnographie Amerikas, zumal Brasiliens," 1867, 116). Of the Peruvian aborigines we are told by an earlier authority that they "follow their own desires without excepting sister, daughter or mother. Others excepted their mother but none else" (Garcilasso de la Vega, First part of the "Royal Commentaries of the Yncas," trans. by C. R. Markham, 1869-71, I, 58).

Similar observations have been made by travellers among primitive peoples in many other parts of the world. Thus with the Karens of Tenasserim "matrimonial alliances between brother and sister or father and daughter are not uncommon" (Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Bengal, VII, 856). In Africa "the kings of Gonzalves and Gaboon are accustomed to marry their grown-up daughters and the queens marry their eldest sons" (A. Bastian, "Der Mensch in der Geschichte," 1860, III, 293). In a district of Celebes "father and daughter, mother and son, brother and sister frequently lived together in bonds of matrimony" (S. J. Hickson, "A Naturalist in North Celebes," 1889, 277). With the Kalangs (probably the aborigines of Java) "mother and son often live together as man and wife, and it is a belief that prosperity and riches flow from such a union" (E. Ketjen, De Kalangers,Tijdschrift von Indische Taal-Land en Volkenkunde, 1877, XXIV, 427). Very similar practices have been reported from New Guinea (Rev. J. Chalmers, "Notes on the Natives of Kiwai,"Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute, XXXI, II, 1903, 124), the Indian Archipelago (Wilken, Over de Verwantschap en het huwelijks en enfrechts bij de volken van het maleische ras, 1883, 277), and Melanesia (Frazer, "Totemism and Exogamy," II, 118).

But it must not be supposed that the frequent practice of incest is confined to primitive races. Although in civilised communities regarded with almost universal condemnation, incest has probably always existed to some extent among certain sections of the population and the practice of incest among modern white races is undoubtedly much more prevalent than is commonly supposed. A well known British psycho-analyst assures me that in the exercise of their profession he and his colleagues hear with astonishing frequency of cases of incest, the report of which is otherwise suppressed. Particularly is this so as regards children. At the present day however, incest undoubtedly occurs most frequently among the poorer classes, where want of adequate housing accommodation renders the temptation greater. It is startling to note in this connection that, according to the Chicago Vice Commission, out of a group of 103 girls examined, no less than 51 reported that they had received their first sexual experience at the hands of their father ("The Social Evil in Chicago," 1911, quoted by W. A. White, "Mechanisms of Character Formation," 1916, 163). Even if we allow a liberal margin for incorrect or exaggerated statements (in this case of course, instances of wish-fulfilment), these figures would seem to afford astonishing evidence as to the prevalence of incest of the father-daughter type in the towns of America. In this country there is reason to believe that similar occurrences are far from being uncommon (cp. "Downward Paths", 20)

[230]Cp. Frazer, "Totemism and Exogamy," IV, 112 ff.

[231]"Native Tribes of Central Australia," 419.

[232]Frazer, "Totemism and Exogamy," I, 242 ff.

[233]Idem, op. cit., IV, 297, quoting Rev. S. Endle.

[234]Idem, op. cit., II, 636.

[235]Idem, op. cit., III, 340.

[236]Op. cit., IV, 138.

[237]"Among whom death alone separates husband and wife". John Bailey, "An Account of the Wild Tribes of the Veddahs of Ceylon." Trans. of the Ethnological Society, N. S. II, 1863, 293.

[238]Westermarck, "History of Human Marriage", 507.

[239]Idem, loc. cit.

[240]Idem, loc. cit.

[241]Wundt, "Elements of Folk Psychology", 48, 50.

[242]Idem, loc. cit.

[243]Idem, loc. cit.

[244]Cp. E. S. Hartland, "Primitive Paternity", II, 254, ff.

[245]It is not perhaps quite easy to see what can be the psychic mechanism in virtue of which men should be attracted to blood relations strictly as such, though to the present writer it would seem to be a possibility which should not be entirely lost sight of. Such a tendency may perhaps have arisen: (1) as the result of some vague and unconscious sense of affinity, similarity or harmony, based perhaps on an unconscious memory impression of pre-natal life (in the case of child and mother or of twins), or upon some other condition of a psychical, physiological or chemical order; (2) at a higher level through the action of perceived physical or psychical resemblance, these in turn playing on the Narcissistic components of the love impulse.

[246]"La Prohibition de l'inceste et ses origines,"L'Année Sociologique, I, 1890, 55 ff.

[247]Cp. Frazer, "Totemism and Exogamy", IV, 100 ff.

[248]"History of Human Marriage," 320 ff.

[249]A difficulty in connection with Westermarck's theory is concerned with the question as to how an aversion to sexual intercourse between those who have lived from infancy together changed to a similar aversion between blood relatives. How is it, if the original aversion was of the former kind, that it has left but little trace of its existence, while the aversion to marriage between blood relatives, which is supposed to have been derived from it, is grown so strong? It would seem as if the theory would perhaps have to be modified so as to postulate the existence of an original aversion to the marriage of blood relatives, as such; though of course this only opens up the fresh difficulty of accounting for the manner in which such an aversion could arise. We are here faced with the same problem that we have already encountered in the case of the positive aspects of the love impulse between relatives (p. 198 footnote).

[250]If this were not the case, we might well ask with other critics why a natural instinct to avoid incestuous relations should need the reinforcement of legal penalties and prohibitions.

[251]For a discussion of the question of inbreeding in the present connection, see Frazer, "Totemism and Exogamy", IV. 160 ff.

[252]"Inbreeding and Outbreeding", Monographs on Experimental Biology, 1919.

[253]Supposing that natural selection does exercise some influence of the kind indicated, such influence does not of course, here any more than elsewhere, necessarily imply any appreciation of the nature of the causes at work. On the contrary, as some authorities have pointed out, it is scarcely possible to ascribe to primitive man any conscious realisation of the ill effects of inbreeding (if these exist). These ill effects manifest themselves much too slowly to be observed by the savage with his relatively short memory and his lack of interest in remote events, especially when, as has often been the case, there has been uncertainty as to the nature of paternity. Even if the savage were able to realise the nature of this hereditary influence, it is pretty clear that his actions and feelings would be but little affected thereby, for it is one of the most general characteristics of the primitive mind that it takes but small account of distant consequences, whereas Eugenics involves the appreciation of such consequences in a high degree.

[254]"Elements of Folk Psychology", 151.

[255]"Studies in Ancient History" (2nd. ed.) 160.

[256]"Principles of Sociology", I, 619.

[257]"The Origin of Civilisation", 135 ff.

[258]"Indisches Ehe- und Familienrecht",Zeitschrift für vergleichende Rechtswissenschaft, III, 1882, 361.

[259]Atkinson and Andrew Lang, "The Primal Law."

[260]A full discussion of these theories will be found in Westermarck's "History of Human Marriage" and Frazer's "Totemism and Exogamy".

[261]Whatever real truth there may be in this argument, we must not fail to bear in mind that it is admirably adapted for use as a "rationalisation",i. e.the fear of evil consequences (dysgenic or other) from marriages between young and old may well be a conscious (and, in a sense, artificial) substitute for the unconscious aversion to such marriages on the ground of their being an indirect expression of incestuous desires. We must therefore be on our guard against the tendency to overemphasise this argument in the absence of adequate objective evidence.

[262]It is round this point of course, as we have above shown, that the differences of opinion between Freud and Jung have largely centred.

[263]That some such factors as these are probably really operative in addition to the more specific sexual inhibitions that compose the incest barrier proper, is shown by a consideration of cases in which no such specific inhibition exists,e. g.that of husband and wife. In spite of the fact that sexual relations between husband and wife are not only permitted but enjoined and that mutual sexual attractiveness has usually played some considerable part in bringing about the union, there can be little doubt that in very many cases a husband and wife, after a certain period of married life, tend to find—superficially at any rate—greater sexual attractiveness in strangers than in one another. The reasons for this (in the absence of any other adequate cause) are often fairly clearly of the kind described—first, the fact that their associations with one another are largely connected with the "humdrum" activities of everyday life in which non-sexual instincts are principally concerned (whereas with strangers the sexual feelings may constitute the predominant, or perhaps the only, bond); secondly the fact that through the very intimacy of their connection there are (as in the case of blood relatives) a number of matters as regards which the husband and wife are competitors or have conflicting interests, thus leading to a certain degree of (usually more or less repressed) hostility on either side.

[264]The reasons for the existence of a general sexual repression, over and above the incest inhibition, and the psychological mechanisms by which this repression is brought about, form a vast and highly important theme on which there exists at present but little general agreement and which, being only indirectly connected with our subject, need fortunately not be entered into here. It is perhaps worth while to point out however in passing, that some of the factors which are responsible for the more general sexual repression are, in all probability, similar to those which we have considered in connection with the production of incest inhibition. Thus there would seem to exist an antagonism between a highly developed and intensive sexuality and those wider social bonds in virtue of which alone the larger human communities are possible. It is on the basis of the manifestations of this antagonism that some writers—as already mentioned—hold that the chief motive forces which are active in sexual repression are to be found in the instincts of the herd. Still more marked perhaps is the antagonism between sex and individuation. It has long been recognised, and modern psychological researches have pretty definitely proved, that many of the more complex desires and activities of the individual—desires and activities upon which human culture ultimately depends—are built up upon sublimations of the sexual tendencies. All these sublimations involve a deflection of sexual energy from its original and primitive direction—a deflection which occurs for the most part or entirely as the result of conflict with the sexual tendencies when thus primitively directed.As regards the motive forces engaged in this conflict, there is again at present much uncertainty, but they probably to some extent differ from one case to another. The conflict would seem to be waged, sometimes between two aspects of the sexual impulse,e. g.between Narcissism and object-love or between physical desire and tender affection (when these elements have been dissociated in the ways we have already studied). In other cases the gregarious instincts are probably engaged in the manner suggested by Trotter and others; while, in still other instances, there may be an antagonism between the sexual impulses and the tendencies of self-assertion, self-respect or self-preservation, as emphasised especially by Freud. For a more general discussion of the factors concerned in sexual inhibition, see E. Bleuler, "Der Sexualwiderstand",Jahrbuch für psychoanalytische und psychopathologische Forschungen, 1913, V, 442, and J. C. Flügel, "On the Biological Basis of Sexual Repression and its Sociological Significance",British Journal of Psychology(Medical Section), 1921, I, 225.

As regards the motive forces engaged in this conflict, there is again at present much uncertainty, but they probably to some extent differ from one case to another. The conflict would seem to be waged, sometimes between two aspects of the sexual impulse,e. g.between Narcissism and object-love or between physical desire and tender affection (when these elements have been dissociated in the ways we have already studied). In other cases the gregarious instincts are probably engaged in the manner suggested by Trotter and others; while, in still other instances, there may be an antagonism between the sexual impulses and the tendencies of self-assertion, self-respect or self-preservation, as emphasised especially by Freud. For a more general discussion of the factors concerned in sexual inhibition, see E. Bleuler, "Der Sexualwiderstand",Jahrbuch für psychoanalytische und psychopathologische Forschungen, 1913, V, 442, and J. C. Flügel, "On the Biological Basis of Sexual Repression and its Sociological Significance",British Journal of Psychology(Medical Section), 1921, I, 225.

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