CHAPTER VIIVisions

“ ... Echo de lacibdat de Roma todos los adeuinos et los encantadores;”[81]

Under the law inLas Siete Partidastreating of actions for which a person might be legally dishonored, is the following entry:

“Como maguer el astrologo diga alguna cosa de otro porrazón de su arte, non le puede ser desmandadopor deshonra.

Pierden los homes á las vegadas algunas de sus cosas, et van á los astrólogos a rogar que caten por su arte quales son aquellos que las tienen, et los astrólogos usando de su sabiduria dicen ó señalan á algunos que las han: et en tal caso como este decimos que los que asi señalaren non pueden demandar que les fagan emienda desto asi como en manera de deshonra: et esto es porque lo que ellos dicen, fácenlo segunt su arte, et non con entención de los deshonrar. Pero como quier que non puedan demandar emienda dello como en manera de deshonra, con todo eso si el adevino fuese baratador que faga muestra de saber lo que non sabe, bien lo pueden acusar que reciba la pena que mandan las leyes del título de los adevinos et de los encantadores.”[82]

Very closely associated with the foregoing accounts, altho differing somewhat in nature, are a large number of legends mentioning wonderful signs that appear in theheavens or on the earth at certain significant moments in the life of an individual or nation. These differ from omens and auguries because they are out-of-the-ordinary happenings, while with auguries and omens proper there is nothing whatever unusual in the event itself and all depends upon the interpretation. The wonderful signs usually require interpretation, but the person seeing them, even the uninitiated, knows immediately that theyhavea meaning. When Octavius Caesar ascended the throne there appeared a rainbow around a clear sun, and again, three suns appeared that merged into one, signifying first, that the Roman Empire, divided into three at the death of Caesar, would become one, and second, that Christ wouldshow the world the mystery of the Trinity[83]. More portentous still were the phenomena which appeared during the consulship of Sextus Julius Caesar and Lucius Marcus, when many signs, fire and noises occurred in the sky, blood flowed from bread as if it were meat when it was cut, real stones and earth were hailed upon the land, the earth opened and flames shot to the sky, a mountain of the color of gold descended from heaven and ascended again until it covered the sun, tame animals became wild, etc.[84]Then, as we leave Roman history and come on down to the 7th century, a sign in the form of a sword appeared in the sky and remained for 30 days, which “demostraua el sennorio que los moros auien de auer.”[85]

While usually quite distinct, the line between these marvelous signs, and omens and auguries proper, may at timesbecome almost imperceptible; as, for instance, when queen Dido arrived in Africa she immediately prepared to build a city, and as the workmen set about digging the foundation for the walls they found the skull of a cow. This was taken to the augurs and they declared it signified that any city built there would always be one of toil and always under the power of others. They moved to another place and again began to dig, this time finding the skull of a horse, which, said the augurs, signified that a city built in that place would always be one of pride and of warriors.[86]

Incidents of this kind might conveniently be placed in either class, because, altho the event itself does not startle one, it does not take a soothsayer to tell a person of an imaginative turn of mind that a skull found under such circumstances probably has a significance.

The foregoing have been but signs whichindicatedthe future, and no matter how striking theforman interpretation was necessary. But there are a few cases recorded where a person is apparently given to see into the future and somehow is permitted to know what is going to occur, without any medium whatsoever, and furthermore is impelled to speak out what he knows. We find that a Roman senator and his wife enter the temple of Jupiter and as they do so a priest who has all the symptoms of demoniac possession, cries out, “Aquest mugier trae en el uientre cosa que destruya de rayz aqueste grand templo et menuzara todos los dios que en el estan.”[87]The event foretold did come to pass when the child referred to became a friend of the emperor and thereby succeeded in having the temple destroyed. Then is added the significant statement that this happened just 1000 years after Rome was founded.

The agent used to convey the message is usually a person, but it may be an animal. An ox tells his master of the future;[88]or even an idol in a heathen temple imparts the knowledge that the temple will stand only “fasta que parriesse uirgen”[89].—The temple fell when Christ was born.

The two termsdreamandvisionseem to have been only vaguely differentiated in the period we are studying, just as even at the present time they are often used almost synonymously. Inlas Cantigaswe find:

“ ... et log’ o meninnose fillou ben adormiret uiú enuijon á Madre” (No. 53),

and

“etdormindo, uiù enuijonSanta María con grand’az” (No. 68),

but in No. 336 the person certainly was not asleep, for:

“El aquest assí fazendoe con o demo luitando,non estand’ en un estado,mais caend’e leuantando,uiú enuijona Reynnados cëos, et él chorandolle disse....”

A similar confusion of the two words is characteristic of the other works of Alfonso X.

Because they are thus synonymously employed it has not seemed desirable to treat the two separately. Also it must be remembered that in many instances, especially inLas Cantigas, some simple statement is made such as “The Virgin appeared to him,” with no indication whether it was in a dream or a vision, or whether, in the form of an ordinary human being she appeared to the person concerned while he was in full possession of his faculties. It is to be regretted that there is no definition of either “dream” or “vision” inLas Siete Partidas. The only reference to dreams is one to the effect that in themselves they are not sufficient authority for the establishment of a church or an altar[90].

Visions and significant dreams[91]may conveniently be divided into three classes: (a) those which deal with what is to us the unknown fate of persons in whom we are interested; (b) those concerned with contemporary events at which we ourselves are not present; and (c) those associated with the future.

In the literature of Alfonso X, those pertaining to the first group deal exclusively with the fate of the soul in the other world. For instance, shortly after the death of king Dagobert of France a holy man had a vision in which he saw the devils contending for and almost successfully carrying off to Hell the soul of the deceased king[92]. Many good men desired this consummation, but Saint Denis, bishop of Paris, pleaded to God for Dagobert’s soul and the bishop’s prayer was granted.[93]

In reading other passages we can almost imagine ourselves in the presence of a clairvoyant medium. Alfonso X dreams of the destruction of the church of Jerez (No. 343), and in a similar manner the Emperor Justinian has a vision of the evil that Gilemer the Vandal is doing in Africa[94]: while the Emperor Heraclius dreams of the misfortunes of his troops in Africa.[95]All of these visions are contemporary with the events involved.

By far the greater part of the visions and dreams have to do with the future of the individual to whom they are manifested; and of these visions by far the greater number are symbolic. Occasionally the messenger appears and gives a direct command, as San Fernando when he appeared to Maestro Jorge and bade him take a fine ring from the finger of a statue recently erected to the saint’s memory by his son Alfonso X, and put it on the fingerof the image of the Virgin[96]; or as when the saints appeared to Taion who had gone on a seemingly hopeless task to Rome to find the famous bookMoralia in Joband told him where it was to be found, even mentioning the exact position in the chest;[97]or again, as when Aeneas, upon his landing on the shores of Africa, dreamed of his future meeting and love affair with Dido[98]. But it is the symbolic vision that was the most popular.

Usually this type of vision is quite simple in its elements, as when Our Lord appeared to Emperor Marcian and showed him the broken bow of Attila. The emperor was at a loss to understand the real import of this, but interpreted it as a favorable omen. Later he discovered that on the very night of the vision Attila had married, and had died as a result of the debauch that had accompanied the wedding.[99]This is an example of the usual type, but at times such a vision is considerably elaborated, involving much symbolism and mysticism. One of the best introduces the Emperor Constantine. It is given here in the writer’s words:

“Et (el emperador) morando y en una cibdat que auie nombre Bizancio, auinol assi una noche, que el yaziendo durmiendo en su lecho, uinol en uision quel parauan delante una muger uegezuela muy fea et much enatia et muerta; et diziel sant Siluestre: “Costantino, faz oracion et ressuscitara esta muger”. Et el oraua luego, et ressuscitaua la muger, et tornauasse sana et muy fermosa;et pagauasse Constantino della de buen amor et casto, et cubriela de su manto, et poniel su corona en la cabeça, et todo quanto bien ell auie. E Elina su madre diziel: “Fijo, tuya sera aquesta, et numqua morra fasta la fin del mundo.”

On awaking, the Emperor fails to recognize the meaning of the dream, until after seven days of fasting on his part, the Pope Sylvester.

“apareciol otra uez et dizol: “la uieia que tu uiste es Bizancio, esta cipdat en que estas, que uees que a ya los muros todos caydos de uegedat. Et por ende sube en el cauallo en que andeste en Roma en las aluas el dia que fuste bateado, quando andeste por todas las yglesias de los apostoles et de los martires pintandolas et afeytandolas con oro et con plata et con piedras preciosas; et leuaras en tu mano la tu senna que a nombrelabaro, et soltaras las riendas al cauallo, et iras por o quier que te ell angel guiar, et leuaras por tierra rastrando la punta del labaro, de guisa que fagas sennal que parezca. Et por o aquella sennal fuere, mandaras fazer muros muy altos et muy fuertes; et esta cibdat que es uieia, tornar la as nueua, et poner las nombre del tuyo, et sera en ella muy loado el nombre del Nuestro Sennor Ihesu Cristo, et aura y muchas yglesias a onra de todos los santos, et regnaran en ella tus fijos et tus nietos et todos los que de ti uinieren”.[100]

There is also quite a long account of the visions beheld by Mohammed while he was at Jerusalem, from which city he was permitted to ascend thru the seven heavens. The compilers preface the history of this arch-enemy of the Christian faith with the statement that Mohammedsuffered from epilepsy, because of which he saw visions that he thought were of God but in reality they were of the Devil.[101]The account ends also with a reminder to the same effect[102].

We now come to a group of miscellaneous elements which, altho some of them were doubtless quite common in the daily life of the people, have for one reason or another received comparatively slight attention at the hands of Alfonso. Some of these, as conjuring for instance, are usually now considered as a part of black magic, but it will be noted in the following paragraphs that it was freely practiced by the Church and in fact formed a part of the most sacred religious rites. In the discussion that follows, these various subjects are taken up in alphabetical order.

Conjuring, says Alfonso in effect, is the art of using potent words in the right manner. Then he illustrates the point with naïve quaintness—as he does so often: “These words, just like a carpenter’s tool, may serve for many different purposes, but it is necessary, if they are to have the effect desired, that they be said by a person whoknows how. The fact that they do have effect is seen from the results of everyday life.”[103]The fourth rank of the clergy was held by the Exorcist, and this title

“quier tanto decir en griego como conjurador, ca estos han poder a conjurar en el nombre de Dios á los demonios que salgan de los homes et que non tornen á ellos jamas: et por ende deben saber estas conjuraciones de cuer porque las sepan decir quando menester fuere: et esta órden fizo primeramente el rey Soloman.”[104]

How much this short passage taken from a law book tells us of the current beliefs, and of the place held by conjuring! Note, however, that conjuring was limited, according to law, to dispossessing the Devil. This practice, like baptism, was in the hands of the clergy and could only be resorted to by the layman in cases of dire necessity. Enchantment and wizardry were strictly forbidden, and for the practice of such criminality a father was given the right to disinherit his son[105]. In thus combatting the Devil the sacred oil, orcrisma, was one of the most powerful instruments. In setting forth its power and significance, the law reads:

“et por ende la crisma es asi como posadero de Ieso Cristo, que toma aquella posada para él, poniendo hi la su señal de la cruz et la entrega de quanto hi falla, echando de hi al diablo et todo lo que hi tiene.”[106]

The method by which the oil was to be prepared is expounded as follows:

“ ... halo él (obispo) de tomar, et exôrcizarlo et bendecirlo desta guisa, deciendo que conjura á Satanás, et á todos sus malos espíritus, et a toda manera de fantasma en el nombre del Padre, et del Fijo et del Espíritu santo que si está en aquel olio que se parta dél ... etc.”

After having been thus carefully prepared,

“Grande es la virtud que ha en este olio ... Esta virtud es en tres maneras: La primera en la natura del olio, la segunda en las palabras que se dicen sobre él, la tercera en las obras que se facen con él.”[107]

Not only thecrisma, but certain words (among them the following) possessed special virtue: “Avemaría”, because from the contents of that prayer one comes to understand the mystery of Jesus, moreover it contains the words of salutation used by the angel to María and these words still greatly please her; “Paternoster”, because it reveals the Father and contains the seven petitions which Jesus taught His disciples; and “Credo in Deum”, because it reveals the Holy Spirit and contains all the faith and science of Christianity.[108]

From these and similar regulations pertaining to the various sacraments, especially baptism, perhaps we might not err seriously in supposing that the practitioners of black magic received not a little of their inspiration from the Church itself, altho much against the will of the latter.With such a number of laws, regulations, etc., it might at first seem a little surprising to find so few legends in which conjuring plays an important part, but probably this can be accounted for by the fact that it was so common a practice that it was scarcely esteemed worthy of mention. The most interesting story for our present purpose—and one which is illustrative of the group in general—is that of the great debate conducted in Rome in the year 320 between the Christians and the Jews. The latter, to prove the superiority of their God, whispered His name in the ear of an angry bull, which promptly fell dead. The Christians went even further; they whispered the name of their God in the ear of thedeadanimal, which immediately returned to life and, quite gentle and meek, was led from the assembly.[109]

InLas Cantigasconjuring is mentioned only in passing references, and almost always it is the Devil who is conjured to leave a person (No. 67). But in one instance we have the well known story of a man, this time a monk, who has at his command the services of the Devil and when Satan cannot procure for him what he desires, because the person concerned is under the special protection of Santa María, the monk threatens him and his host of imps in these words:

“Ide fazerCom’ eu a donzela aialog’ esta noit’ en meu poder;se non,eu hüa redomatodos uos ensserraría.” (No. 125.)

There is not a genuine clean-cut ghost in the entire period. In fact, such apparitions as we know them seem never to have flourished very vigorously in Spain. There arefantasmas, andsombras, etc., in abundance in a later period, but the ghost that appeals to present day observers was entirely lacking. In the time of Alfonso X, the function of the ghost, which is usually that of issuing warnings from the other world, was generally exercised by the saints or angels. In one case, it is true, a friar returns after his decease to explain to his two brethren why his corpse turned black at death and was restored to its natural color when a candle from the altar of the Virgin was placed in its hand (No. 123). But this is a very poor example; there is no element of fear recorded. The shade does not pass thru closed doors, weapons do not pierce its body without effect, etc. Emperor Julian has a rather ghostly experience when he is killed by the phantom knight,[110]but this is in reality a returned saint and not a ghost, and besides he kills with a weapon—a most unorthodox piece of behavior for a ghost.

There is only one good ghost story in the entire lot, and this claims to be no more than a narrative from Roman history, apparently told solely because it is in the old records. Emperor Caius Caligula was assassinated and his enemies half burned his body, then in haste partially buried it. Because of this his spirit could not rest in peace but tormented the keepers of the garden where the body lay, and the guardians of the place where he had been killed, until the cremation was properly performed and the ashes suitably buried. This has indeed the necessary elements of a ghost story, but as indicated above, it seems to have found its way into the literature purely by chance and makes no literary impression on the period.[111]

The sacrament of communion was intended especially to remove the tendency to do evil rather than good. This sacrament being the most frequently observed of all and in many ways closely associated with Extreme Unction which may be described as the most potent, there grew up around the Host a number of legends. The Host, on account of its extreme sacredness, became one of the favorite points of attack for the practitioners of black magic, who seemed to have considered it as a most powerful charm. Four of the miracles[112]inLas Cantigaswere performed to protect it from such an unholy use, altho in only one of these, which is briefly as follows, does the black magician appear in person:[113]a countryman wished to secure a large yield of honey with little effort, so he consulted asorteira, whotold him that next time he went to communion he should not swallow the Host nor touch it with his teeth but should take it and put it in one of the hives. Having done so, he found later upon opening the hive, an image of the Virgin and Child. Frightened, he hastened to the priest, who ordered the marvel taken in procession to the church. There, when it was blessed, it turned back again into the simple Host.

The Host is again transformed in No. 149. Here it is a devout priest who cannot bring himself to believe in transubstantiation. One day at Mass the Host disappeared and the priest saw before him the Virgin and Child. He asked the Virgin if she had the Host. “Yes, it is here,” she said showing him her Son. With that, upon explaining why it took the form of bread and wine, she disappeared. As she vanished the priest again saw the bread and wine as it was previously, but he no longer doubted.

Aside from this type of story, illustrating the sacredness and inviolability of the Host, there are a number of cures of various kinds purporting to have been wrought in persons waiting before the altar at the time of Mass.[114]The hours themselves at which Mass was celebrated were symbolic. These were ordinarily the third hour, the hour in which the Jews demanded the death of Jesus and in which He was scourged; the sixth hour, that of the crucifixion and the ascension; or the ninth hour. In cases of conflict with an hour of regular occupation, or other reason of necessity, private Mass might be said earlier or laterup to the ninth hour.[115]At Christmas a clergyman might recite three Masses (usually he was allowed to recite only one a day), and they were to be at the following hours: (1) at cock-crowing before dawn, signifying the time when the people were still in darkness, (2) at dawn, signifying the semi-light of the prophets, and (3) at the third hour, representing the full light of the present dispensation.[116]

The ceremony of the Mass was one which the Devil could not venture to look upon. In order to test whether a questionable peculiarity was of the devil, the person affected by it was sometimes taken to Mass, as in the case of a young girl who had been placed in a convent and consecrated to the Church, but who developed a mania for fondling the Child of the Virgin Mary, without opposition on the part of the Holy Mother. At last the community discovered the situation, and, duly shocked, appealed to the Pope. He did not know what to say, so he decided to test the case at Mass. During the ceremony, at the girl’s request, he had the image of the Virgin’s Child placed in the girl’s arms. Upon receiving it she exclaimed, “This is my child and I want to go with him.” Saying which, she took the Host and expired, going to be with Him in paradise (No. 251).[117]

The Spanish—as before intimated—are a highly imaginative race and incline to look for a mystical meaning or a symbol in everything. It was probably due to this that the Catholic faith, with its elaborate ceremonial, crowded with symbolism, was so fervently embraced by the nation as a whole. For them every event was fraught with an hidden meaning. The enigma of the future, for example, had been written by the mysterious finger of God in the stars. There was a special mystery, again, shrouding certain numbers, particularly three, seven, and nine. Since there were three clases of sins, venial, criminal, and mortal, the priest, in the ceremony of baptism, was to breathe three times in the face of the candidate, conjuring the Devil to leave the body; three times was he to conjure salt and put it in the mouth of the person; and three times must he immerse the infant who was the recipient of the rite. Again there were nine orders of angels, nine also of the clergy—nine being the square of three.[118]But the greatest and most significant of all numbers was seven. There were seven things needed before a church was complete (Partidas, 1-10-14); seven privileges of the prelates over the clergy (1-5-65); seven punishments for crime (7-31-4); seven virtues a king should possess (2-5-7 and 8). Each official must swear to seven things; there are twice seven,or fourteen, joints in the hand, and therefore twice seven articles of faith, as the articles of faith have the same function in the divine hand as the joints in the human (1-3-3). There are seven notes in the musical scale.[119]But to give a just idea of the true significance of this number I can do no better than to quote from the Prólogo ofLas Siete Partidas, pages six and seven.

Septenario es un cuento muy noble que loaron mucho los sabios antiguos, porque se fallan en él muy muchas cosas et muy señaladas que se departen por cuento de siete, asi como todas las criaturas que son departidas en siete maneras. Ca segunt dixo Aristotiles et los otros sabios, ó es criatura que non ha cuerpo ninguno, mas es espiritual como angel et alma; ó es cuerpo simple que non se engendra nin se corrompe por natura, et es celestial, asi como los cielos et las estrellas; ó ha cuerpo simple que se corrompe et se engendra por natura, como los elementos; ó ha cuerpo compuesto et alma de crecer, et de sentir et de razonar como home; ó ha cuerpo compuesto et alma de crecer et de sentir et non de razonar, asi como las otras animalias que no son homes; ó ha cuerpo compuesto de crecer, mas non de sentimiento nin de razon, asi como los árboles et todas las otras plantas; ó ha cuerpo compuesto et non alma nin sentimiento, asi como los metales, et las piedras et las cosas minerales que se crian en la tierra. Otrosi todas las cosas naturales ban movimiento que se departe en siete maneras; ca o es asuso ó ayuso, ó delanteó atras, ó á diestro ó á siniestro, ó en derredor. Et en este mesmo cuento fallaron los sabios antiguos las siete estrellas mas nombradas, á que llaman planetas, et de que tomaron cuento por los siete cielos en que estan por los sus nombres; et ordenaron por ellos los siete dias de la semana. Et los sabios departieron por este cuento de siete las partes de toda la tierra á que llaman climas. Et por este mesmo cuento departieron los metales; et otrosi algunos hi hobo que por este cuento de siete partieron los saberes á que llaman artes: eso mesme fecieron de la edad del home. Et aun por ese mesmo cuento demostró Dios á los que eran sus amigos muchas de sus poridades por fecho et por semejanza, asi como á Noe, á quien mandó facer el area en que se salvase del deluvio, et que le mandó que de todas las cosas que fuesen buenas et limpias metiese en ella siete. Otrosi Jacob, que fue patriarca servió a su suegro siete años por Rachêl, et porque le dió a Lia servió otros siete por ella mesma, et esto fué por muy grant significanza. Et Josep, su fijo, que fue poderoso sobre toda la tierra de Egipto por el sueño que soltó al rey Faraon de los siete años de mengua et de los siete de abondo, segunt el sueño que el Rey soñara de las siete espigas et de las siete vacas: esto fue fecho de grant devocion. Otrosi á Moysen quando le mandó facer el tabernáculo en que feciesen oracion los fijos de Israel, le mandó que entre todas las otras cosas que señaladamente posiese dentro de él un candelero de oro fecho en manera de árbol, en que habiese siete ramos, que fuese fecho por grant significanza. Et David, que fue otrosi rey de Israel, por gracia que le veno de nuestro señor Ieso Cristo, fizo por Espíritu Santo el salterio, que es una de las mejores escripturas de santa Eglesia, et mostró en él siete cosas, asi como profecía, et oracion, et loor, et bendicion, et reprehendimiento, et consejo et penitencia. Et despues de todo esto quando nuestro Señor quiso facer tan grantmercer al mundo que deñó prender came de la virgen santa María por nos salvar, et que le podiésemos veer vesiblemente, et conoscer que era Dios et home, por este cuento, segun dixo el profeta, hobo él en si siete dones de Espiritu Santo. Et otrosi por este cuento, segunt dixieron los santos, hobo santa María siete placeres muy grandes del su fijo, que se cantan en santa eglesia. Et en este cuento mesmo nos dió nuestro señor Ieso Cristo siete sacramentos, porque nos podiésemos salvar. Et otrosi en este mesmo cuento nos mostró él mesmo la oracion del pater noster en que ha siete cosas en que le debemos pedir merced. Otrosi san Iohan evangelista, que fue pariente et amigo de nuestro señor Iesu Cristo, fizo un libro, á que llaman Apocalipse, de muy grandes poridades que le él demostró, et las mayores cosas que en él escribió son todas partidas por este cuento de siete. Onde por todas estas razones que muestran muchos bienes que en este cuento son, partimos este nuestro libro en siete partes, et mostramos en la primera dellas de todas las cosas que pertenescen a la santa fe católica.

While one of the greatest of all mysteries was that connected with certain numbers the idea did not stop here. Jerusalem was destroyed in the same month Jesus was crucified.[120]The well known biblical mystery traditions connected with the earthly life of Jesus are all faithfully narrated.[121]Attila is supplied with a sword from Vulcan in a mysterious way.[122]Alejandro el Magno and his host, after traveling for seven days in darkness in the Orient come to a river

“que habia las aguas caldas, et fallaron alli allend ese rio mugieres que moraban y muy fermosas, et vestian unas vestiduras muy espantosas, et andaban en caballos et traien en las manos armas doro, por que non habien fierro nin cobre de que las facer, nin habie varon maslo entre todas ellas.“E Alexandre quisiera pasar el rio a ellas, mas non pudo por ninguna guisa por que era ancho et lleno de dragones et de otras bestias fieras muy grandes.”[123]

“E Alexandre quisiera pasar el rio a ellas, mas non pudo por ninguna guisa por que era ancho et lleno de dragones et de otras bestias fieras muy grandes.”[123]

After leaving this place and journeying a little farther amid various adventures they again come upon another land of

“mugieres muy grandes de cuerpos et las barbas tan luenguas que les alcanzaban fasta en las tetas, et las cabezas planas; et vistien pielles, et eran muy buenas cazadoras et corredoras de mont, et pora correr mont en logares de canes, traien bestias fieras enseñadas pora ello, et ensañaban se las ellas. E cuando entraron Alexandre et su huest en aquellas selvas o estas mugieres eran, et vieron ellos a ellas et ellas a ellos fuxieron ellas; et caballeros de Macedonia cuando las vieron foir cogieron empos ellas en sus caballos et alcanzaron den ya cuantas, et prisieron dellas et aduxieron las a Alexandre.“Alexandre cuando las vió mandó las preguntar por el lenguaje de India que dixiesen como vinien a morar a aquellas selvas o morada de homne del mondo non habie. Fablaron ellas et dixieron que vivieron de caza que facien con bestias fieras et non dal, et que moraban por ende siempre en las selvas. Et salieron daquellas selvas Alexandre et su huest a los campos grandes et anchos, et fallaron alli de cabo otros varones et mugieres; et las mugieres desnuyas todas; et habien todos los cuerpos vellosos de pelos como bestias. Et era costumbre daquelloshomes et daquellas mugieres de morar en aquel rio et en la tierra et asi como fue viniendo la huest et llegando les aquellas mugieres somurguieron se ellas luego en el rio; et estudieron alli una pieza Alexandre et su huest por veer si saldrien et probar ellos ende mas. Et movieron dalli et fueron yendo adelant, et fallaron otras mugieres que habien dientes como de puercos monteses et los cabellos de las cabezas tan luengos que les daban por los tobiellos, et el otro cuerpo que lo habien todo velloso de pelos como el estrucio et el camello, et en los lomiellos que habien como vaca que las colgaban alli ayuso; et el estado dellas de luengo era de doce pies.”[124]

“Alexandre cuando las vió mandó las preguntar por el lenguaje de India que dixiesen como vinien a morar a aquellas selvas o morada de homne del mondo non habie. Fablaron ellas et dixieron que vivieron de caza que facien con bestias fieras et non dal, et que moraban por ende siempre en las selvas. Et salieron daquellas selvas Alexandre et su huest a los campos grandes et anchos, et fallaron alli de cabo otros varones et mugieres; et las mugieres desnuyas todas; et habien todos los cuerpos vellosos de pelos como bestias. Et era costumbre daquelloshomes et daquellas mugieres de morar en aquel rio et en la tierra et asi como fue viniendo la huest et llegando les aquellas mugieres somurguieron se ellas luego en el rio; et estudieron alli una pieza Alexandre et su huest por veer si saldrien et probar ellos ende mas. Et movieron dalli et fueron yendo adelant, et fallaron otras mugieres que habien dientes como de puercos monteses et los cabellos de las cabezas tan luengos que les daban por los tobiellos, et el otro cuerpo que lo habien todo velloso de pelos como el estrucio et el camello, et en los lomiellos que habien como vaca que las colgaban alli ayuso; et el estado dellas de luengo era de doce pies.”[124]

Relics, which played an exceedingly important part in the life of the medieval Church, might consist of anything which formerly belonged to a saint or to Jesus, or anything which might serve as evidence in establishing a miracle. Every altar, upon being consecrated, should have some relics placed within it,[125]and these usually were of miracle-working power themselves. At Chartres therewas a certain dress that had belonged to the Virgin, on which it was the custom to place cloth which was made up into garments for warriors, because it was believed that after being thus treated garments made from it would be invulnerable. In fact a knight wearing one of these was attacked while unarmed, and altho his enemies thought they had pierced him thru and thru he was in reality unharmed (No. 148). The bones of St. Thomas, together with a letter purporting to have been written by Jesus, were so powerful that when placed over the gate of Edessa no enemy could enter without first making peace with the city.[126]Very interesting is the case of the humble woman who went to confession and after doing penance asked for a written certificate of pardon, which after some hesitation was given. Misfortune overtook her and she was forced to beg. In one city she came upon a moneychanger and asked the loan of a small sum but he would not let her have it without security. The only security she could offer was this certificate of pardon. The moneychanger laughed at the idea, but finally promised to let her have the equivalent of its weight in gold, and putting it on his scales was astonished to find that all his gold would not balance it. This convinced him, and becoming converted he told the woman to take whatever amount she needed. (No. 305).

Such relics not only had the power to work miracles but were themselves divinely protected. One man, a peasant, laughed at the idea that a certain shoe on thealtar in the church had ever belonged to the Virgin, because, he said, a shoe as old as that would not be in so good a state of preservation. To cure him of such flagrant unbelief she afflicted him in the mouth in such a manner that he could be cured only upon the application of the shoe in question (No. 61). At another time some priests, by the exhibition of relics, were collecting money to rebuild a church. In the course of their travels they entered a ship with some merchantmen. After a short while they were attacked by pirates, and in the face of danger the merchants, to secure immunity, offered gifts of money for the building of the church. When the danger was safely passed they repented of their extravagance and took back their donations, buying wool for their own use with the money. Shortly afterward a stroke of lightning set fire to their purchases, thus avenging both God and the Virgin (No. 35).

Naturally, some relics were more powerful and more sacred than others, and they varied in these respects according to the importance of the saint to whom they belonged; and seemingly were protected in a like measure. When Alfonso el Sabio left Seville for Castile he ordered the relics of the Virgin, along with those of the other saints, to be carefully put away, but when he returned ten years later he found only those of the Virgin in perfect condition; those of the other saints had decayed (No. 257).

After the foregoing investigation the fact is impressed on us more vividly than ever that the Spain of the Middle Ages was truly the mother of the Spain of today. Hers were a people with a lively imagination, but this was dominated by the two elements which have always been most marked in her history—religion and realism. And wherever these two elements enter into the development of the supernatural in the mind of man, the Spanish contribution has to be taken seriously into the account.

It is impossible, as stated previously, to affirm which of the medieval traditions are Spanish and which are not. The most that we can hope to do is to note what type of legend appealed to this people; of all the host of supernatural stories common through the Europe of the Middle Ages, to determine what classes or types found their way into Spain and there were welcomed, being repeated from generation to generation (becoming thus a part of the national tradition); and what kind or kinds were rejected because they did not have this appeal.

In Spain the beliefs and superstitions we have been passing in review, having as their starting point the actual observation of objective nature and of human nature, wereamazingly multifarious. The study in particular of omens and of auguries, based on the real experiences of life, made a peculiar appeal to the Spaniards, as is witnessed by the abundance of material concerning such found at every turn in the early literature. Contrasted with this is the notable lack of the fantastic and purely imaginary, so popular among the nations of the north, as well as among the Mohammedans.

The effect of this realistic spirit on the religion of the people, the other dominating element of their national life, must also be noted. The unreal ghost has given place to the more naturalistic saint or angel, for their religion permitted no denial of the existence of these two orders of beings. Moreover, soothsayers, diviners, and other similar characters were recognized by the Church as a real force, as is evidenced by the Church’s constant warfare against them. And the Devil! What good medieval Christian,—above all, what Spaniard,—could refuse to believe in him?

To summarize: We are impressed first by the commanding prominence accorded to the personalities of the saints, especially Saint Mary, then of Santiago (St. James) and the others; next, of the predominating importance of the rôle of the Child Jesus, with the relegation to a comparatively unimportant place of the adult Saviour; and finally of the enemies of God, headed by Diabolus. The works and influences of all the above are manifested in dreams and visions, miracles and portents, in almost every conceivable form, conjuring, fortune-telling, etc. The ritual of the church service, especially of the sacraments,becomes intertwined and adorned with what many faithful churchmen of the present time would doubtless be willing to class as downright superstitions. Omens and the like, because of their realistic appeal, continue in spite of the constant opposition of the Church.

In contrast to this, however, we find no unquestionable ghosts. The “magic ring”, moreover, is entirely lacking, as is nearly all that type of Arabian magic. King Oberon, with his fairy band, has not yet made his appearance, and the sage Merlin is only alluded to occasionally by the learned. Subterranean cities still remain limited to their northern abode. The well-knownmal de ojois absent, and enchantment is little heard of. The Werewolf, mentioned, it is said, by Pomponius Mela, Herodotus, and Ovid, is entirely neglected and omitted either thru simple ignorance of it or because it does not conform to their realistic thought. The search for the elixir of life is only faintly hinted at in the restoration of youth to the aged priest who seeks help from the Virgin (No. 141). The myth of supernatural prolongation of life is to be found only in its primitive stages, in such legends as that of María Egipciaca and in some of the miracles contained inLas Cantigas, and yet we are told that,

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