5. Generosity.
Every human being is moved at times by generous impulses which may arise from a variety of causes. The arguer should study these causes and attempt to stimulate the impulses. Dignify the position of those to whom the appeal is made by showing them that they can well afford to be generous.
The arguer should never fail to leave his hearers with the conviction that he champions a just cause. This appeal can always be made, because under no circumstances should anyone champion a cause which is unjust. In this age people as a whole are willing to do the right thing, despite the actions of particular individuals or groups of individuals to the contrary. Abstract justice in its application to the particular proposition should form the basis of the final plea.
The hearts of men have always been stirred by the appeal to patriotism. Action in its most intense form will follow the right appeal to love of country. The protection of home and kindred has from the dawn of history been the prime motive in all great world movements. Other causes may appear on the surface, but underlying these, in one form or another is this primal cause. Wars are waged and nations built up or overthrown because of the use or abuse of this power. Therefore the speaker must make a broad application of his particular argument in the closing paragraph.
With these fundamental suggestions in mind regarding the attitude which the conclusion should take, we will now turn to the form in which it is to be presented.
The conclusion must conform to the brief by summing up the main arguments and putting them clearly before theaudience. This summary is necessary in order to make the proof clear and forcible. It should contain the main issues, and, whenever practicable, the subordinate reasons supporting them, in order that the chief points in the proof of the proposition may be recalled by the audience.
An example of the simple summary which is often quoted as a model, is the conclusion of the argument made by Daniel Webster in the case ofOgdenv.Saunders:—
“To recapitulate what has been said, we maintain, first, that the Constitution, by its grants to Congress and its prohibitions to the states, has sought to establish one uniform standard of value, or medium of payment. Second, that, by like means, it has endeavored to provide for one uniform mode of discharging debts, when they are to be discharged without payment. Third, that these objects are connected, and that the first loses much of its importance, if the last, also, be not accomplished. Fourth, that, reading the grant to Congress and the prohibition on the states together, the inference is strong that the Constitution intended to confer an exclusive power to pass bankrupt laws on Congress. Fifth, that the prohibition in the tenth section reaches to all contracts, existing or in the future, in the same way that the other prohibition, in the same section, extends to all debts, existing or in the future. Sixthly, that, upon any other construction, one great political object of the Constitution will fail of its accomplishment.â€
Again in the argument on the Presidential Protest he summarizes with effect and concludes:—
“—We have not sought this controversy; it has met us and been forced upon us. In my judgment, the law has been disregarded, and the Constitution transgressed; the fortress of liberty has been assaulted, and circumstances have placed the Senate in the breach; and, although we may perish in it, I know we shall not fly from it. But I am fearless of consequences.We shall hold on, Sir, and hold out, till the people themselves come to its defense. We shall raise the alarm, and maintain the post, till they whose right it is shall decide whether the Senate be a faction, wantonly resisting lawful power, or whether it be opposing, with firmness and patriotism, violations of liberty, and inroads upon the Constitution.â€
In concluding this chapter on constructing the argument, let us again revert to the fact that the conclusion must be presented in such a way as to create a desire for action. The conclusion must “clinch†the argument. The time has come for the reader or hearer to act, or determine upon action. All the labor spent upon the introduction in arousing and fixing the attention, and all the labor spent upon the proof in maintaining the interest and building a firm basis for persuasion in rational conviction, is now lost unless the conclusion rises supreme above these and presents a culmination forcible and commanding. The conclusion should reap the harvest of persuasion sown throughout the argument. The emotions must be aroused as they have not been aroused in the presentation of the proof; they must be stimulated to the highest pitch. The conclusion must command the best powers of the speaker or writer. It must unite the audience, the subject, and the personality of him who presents the argument into one mighty current of thought and emotion which leads onward to action.
CHAPTER VIIREBUTTAL
Rebuttal consists of defending the constructive argument and weakening or destroying opposing arguments. Rebuttal is both defense and attack. Refutation is attack alone. In formal debate rebuttal refers to the final speech made by each debater after he has presented his constructive argument and his opponents have had a chance to reply. The main speech in a formal debate is usually of ten minutes’ duration while the rebuttal speech is of five minutes’ duration. Furthermore, after the first affirmative speaker has opened the debate it is customary for each succeeding speaker to introduce his main argument with a short rebuttal speech of one or two minutes, or he may introduce rebuttal at any point in his main speech.
The rebuttal speech must introduce no new argument, but is limited to a discussion of the validity of the arguments already presented. After the salesman has presented his goods and the reasons why the prospective customer should buy, he must answer the questions regarding those reasons and the objections which are made to them. Furthermore, he must overthrow any reasons for not buying which may be advanced by the customer. In arguing with a single individual regarding the advisability of any course of action the arguer must defend his own position as well as overthrow that of his opponent. In organizations and deliberative bodies the speaker who proposes any plan or measure must be prepared to answer any objections which may be made to it; and must also be prepared to weaken or destroy thearguments which may be advanced in support of other plans or measures which conflict with his own. It is thus seen that a knowledge of the preparation and presentation of rebuttal is almost indispensable to the student who would make practical application of the theory and practice of argumentation. Since our work is to take the form of debating, we shall consider the subject largely from this standpoint. Nevertheless, the student should constantly keep in mind the broader application of the principles which are used in formal debating.
Rebuttal should never be considered lightly from the standpoint of preparation. The speaker who relies on the “spur†of the moment is quite sure to find that when the moment arrives it has no “spur.†The rebuttal should be prepared as carefully as the constructive argument. It demands exact and far-reaching knowledge. Furthermore, it demands absolute command of that knowledge in order that it may be used effectively. In this preparation the student should consider the sources from which he may derive the appropriate material, and the proper arrangement of that material after it has been collected.
The investigation which preceded and accompanied the construction of the brief and argument should have yielded a wide knowledge of the subject. Much of the material gathered could not be used because of limitations of time or space, because of its not being adapted to use in the argument as it was to be presented, or because of the abundance of better material. The student will therefore have in his possession a large number of facts which were not used. Theseshould be carefully reviewed in order that the “stock in trade†of rebuttal material may be invoiced. The student should then revert to his original analysis and examine his opponents’ position with a critical eye. He should measure carefully the strength of that position and compare it with his own. All the sources which were consulted in the beginning should again be made to yield information. This can now be done with ease, because the preparation of the constructive argument has given the student a firm grasp upon the subject-matter.
Every possible point of attack which the constructive argument presents must be fortified by full and complete rebuttal material. The debater should begin at his argument as a starting point and work back along the line of evidence supporting each general assertion. Since it was impracticable to put into the argument all the evidence supporting any one contention, the student must now have this evidence at hand in order to support his argument at the point where the attack can be made. It is almost impossible to construct an argument which cannot be attacked in a plausible manner, but it is entirely possible to construct an argument which can be defended successfully.
After the constructive argument has been fortified, the main contentions of the opposition, which the analysis of the question has revealed, must receive careful attention. Every possible line of attack which the opposition may advance should be considered. The student cannot hope to determine beforehand the form in which these arguments will be presented. Nevertheless, if his analysis of the proposition has been made in a thorough manner, and if his preparation has been thorough, he cannot fail to have grasped the underlying arguments of his opponents’ position. These should now be refuted with the best material which the debater can find. He must be as diligent in ferreting out evidencewhich will overthrow his opponents’ position as he was in searching for evidence with which to support his own. No available source of evidence should be neglected. Every weak point in the opposing argument should be exposed and “ammunition†with which to attack these weak places should be collected. This material should be tabulated on cards in the same form that was used in tabulating material for the constructive argument. The following specimens of rebuttal cards, prepared by students for an inter-class debate, may prove suggestive.
It often happens that the question has been debated previously. In such cases books, papers, and documents maybe found which contain “ready-made†rebuttal arguments. The debater should never rely on these alone. The preparation suggested in the last section is an absolute prerequisite to successful work in rebuttal. However, these ready-made arguments should be searched out carefully and made to form a part of the material for rebuttal. Such evidence is of course subject to the same requirement regarding its worth and validity as the sources of material consulted in constructing the main argument.
The student should now go over his cards carefully and consider the various books, papers, or documents from which his information was derived. Any of these books, papers, or documents which stand as authority for vital facts, or for facts about which there is likely to be a dispute, should be taken out and placed with the other material which is to be used in rebuttal. Especially should this be done in cases where the debater feels that he has authority which is probably better than that which his opponents will be able to quote. For example, a government document makes a very effective showing when it is quoted as contradicting the statement of some unknown magazine writer. In like manner statistics from theUnited States Census Reportswill prevail over statistics found in an address delivered by some partisan leader. Since such conflicts of authority are likely to arise it is important that the debater have at hand the original sources of the information which forms the basis of his argument or rebuttal. Moreover, a recognized authority sometimes changes his opinion. In this case the debater should be careful to provide himself with the book, paper, or document which contains his latest views on the subject discussed. These become especially valuable when the opposition relies upon the old views of the authority quoted. In this, as in all other cases of authority, the usual tests of sufficiency apply.
C. Questions.
The skillful asking of questions is a most important matter in debating. These are often asked in the main argument, but it is in the rebuttal that the answers are usually threshed out. If the questions are not asked originally in the rebuttal they should at least be reverted to during this part of the debate. No debater can consider himself thoroughly prepared who has not framed some effective questions and who is not ready to answer questions which may be asked by his opponents. The interrogatories which are intended to be discussed in the rebuttal are not rhetorical questions, but questions calling for definite answers.
There are two well defined uses to which these questions may be put. First, they may be used to compel an opponent to take a definite position on some issue which he appears to be attempting to evade. Second, they may be used to force an opponent into a dilemma, in which position he will be at a disadvantage without regard to the answer which he gives. Very often an opponent is more skillful in evading the real point at issue than he is in debating it. In such cases a question or series of questions may be necessary in order to compel him to discuss the subject of dispute. Sometimes an opponent intentionally evades the real point at issue because he knows his position is weak and seeks to cover up the real defect under a plausible show of language. In both of these situations the use of direct questions is effective. The wording of these questions should receive the same careful consideration which is bestowed upon the wording of a proposition. The questions must be clear and unambiguous and must call for definite and direct answers. No opportunity for evasion should be allowed. Furthermore, these questions must be worded forcibly and emphasized in such a way that an opponent will not dare to leave them unanswered.
On the other hand, if an opponent propounds certain questions to which answers are demanded, the debater must either answer these questions satisfactorily or show good reason why they should remain unanswered. In the famous Lincoln-Douglas debates, which began August, 1858, questions were frequently asked by both parties. In the first debate, which was held at Ottawa, Illinois, Douglas asked Lincoln seven distinct questions. In the second debate which was held at Freeport, Lincoln restated these questions and answered them briefly and to the point in the following manner:
“In the course of that opening argument Judge Douglas proposed to me seven distinct interrogatories. In my speech of an hour and a half, I attended to some other parts of his speech, and incidentally, as I thought, answered one of the interrogatories then. I then distinctly intimated to him that I would answer the rest of his interrogatories on condition only that he would agree to answer as many for me. He made no intimation at the time of the proposition, nor did he in his reply allude at all to that suggestion of mine. I do him no injustice in saying that he occupied at least half of his reply in dealing with me as though I hadrefusedto answer his interrogatories. I now propose that I will answer any of the interrogatories, upon condition that he will answer questions from me not exceeding the same number. I give him an opportunity to respond. The Judge remains silent. I now say that I will answer his interrogatories, whether he answers mine or not; and that after I have done so I shall propound mine to him.
“I have supposed myself, since the organization of the Republican party at Bloomington, in May, 1856, bound as a party man by the platforms of the party, then and since. If in any interrogatories which I shall answer I go beyond the scope of what is within these platforms, it will be perceived that no one is responsible but myself.
“Having said this much, I will take up the Judge’s interrogatories as I find them printed in the ChicagoTimes, and answer themseriatim. In order that there may be no mistake about it, I have copied the interrogatories in writing, and also my answers to them. The first one of these interrogatories is in these words:
Question 1—‘I desire to know whether Lincoln to-day stands, as he did in 1854, in favor of the unconditional repeal of the Fugitive Slave law?’
Answer—I do not now, nor ever did, stand in favor of the unconditional repeal of the Fugitive Slave law.
Question 2—‘I desire him to answer whether he stands pledged to-day, as he did in 1854, against the admission of any more Slave States into the Union even if the people want them?’
Answer—I do not now, nor ever did, stand pledged against the admission of any more Slave States into the Union.
Question 3—‘I want to know whether he stands pledged against the admission of a new State into the Union with such a Constitution as the people of that state may see fit to make?’
Answer—I do not stand pledged against the admission of a new State into the Union, with such a Constitution as the people of that State may see fit to make.
Question 4—‘I want to know whether he stands to-day pledged to the abolition of slavery in the District of Columbia?’
Answer—I do not stand to-day pledged to the abolition of slavery in the District of Columbia.
Question 5—‘I desire him to answer whether he stands pledged to the prohibition of the slave trade between the different states?’
Answer—I do not stand pledged to the prohibition of the slave trade between the different states.
Question 6—‘I desire to know whether he stands pledgedto prohibit slavery in all the Territories of the United States, north as well as south of the Missouri Compromise line?’
Answer—I am impliedly, if not expressly, pledged to a belief in therightanddutyof Congress to prohibit slavery in all the United States Territories.
Question 7—‘I desire him to answer whether he is opposed to the acquisition of any new territory unless slavery is first prohibited therein?’
Answer-I am not generally opposed to honest acquisition of territory; and, in any given case, I would or would not oppose such acquisition, according as I might think such acquisition would or would not aggravate the slavery question among ourselves.
“Now, my friends, it will be perceived upon an examination of these questions and answers, that so far I have only answered that I was notpledgedto this, that, or the other. TheJudgehas not framed his interrogatories to ask me anything more than this, and I have answered in strict accordance with the interrogatories, and have answered truly, that I am notpledgedat all upon any of the points to which I have answered. But I am not disposed to hang upon the exact form of his interrogatory. I am rather disposed to take up at least some of these questions, and state what I really think of them.â€
In the above example of the use of questions and answers it will be noted that Lincoln emphasizes his fairness by offering to answer his opponent’s questions provided that opponent will do the same with questions which he propounds. When Judge Douglas does not accept this proposition, Lincoln follows up his just course of conduct by declaring that he will answer his opponent’s questions whether that opponent will answer his or not. He then makes an introductory statement in which he limits the responsibility of his answers strictly to himself. He next takes up each questionand answers it briefly and directly. He concludes these answers with a paragraph in which he shows that he has answered the questions strictly in accordance with the form in which they were asked. Then he again shows his fairness and even liberality toward his opponent by taking up the more important questions and giving a full and complete discussion of each one. After this fair and comprehensive treatment Lincoln proceeds to propound his questions to Judge Douglas in the following manner.
“I now proceed to propound to the Judge the interrogatories so far as I have framed them. I will bring forward a new installment when I get them ready. I will bring them forward now only reaching to number four.
The first one is:—
Question 1—If the people of Kansas shall, by means entirely unobjectionable in all other respects, adopt a State constitution, and ask admission into the Union under it, before they have the requisite number of inhabitants according to the English bill,—some ninety-three thousand,—will you vote to admit them?
Question 2—Can the people of a United States Territory, in any lawful way, against the wish of any citizen of the United States, exclude slavery from its limits prior to the formation of a State constitution?
Question 3—If the Supreme Court of the United States shall decide that States cannot exclude slavery from their limits, are you in favor of acquiescing in, adopting, and following such a decision as a rule of political action?
Question 4—Are you in favor of acquiring additional territory, in disregard of how such acquisition may affect the nation on the slavery question?â€
The foregoing examples of questions and answers will give an idea of the way in which they may be used in a formal debate. The third interrogatory propounded by Lincolnillustrates well the type of question which is designed to force an opponent into a dilemma. This inquiry is an example of the great analytical ability of Lincoln, as the following circumstances will show.
The Dred Scott decision by the United States Supreme Court had held that Congress did not have the power to exclude slavery from any of the territories. Lincoln regarded this decision as wrong and said so. Douglas denounced Lincoln for his attitude in the matter and declared that it was unpatriotic, disloyal, and revolutionary for any man to criticize a decision of the United States Supreme Court. On the other hand Lincoln denounced Douglas on the ground that he, acting in conjunction with other Democrats, was engaged in a conspiracy to nationalize slavery. In support of this charge he offered reasonable evidence, and showed that the conspirators’ efforts would be complete providing they could get a decision of the Supreme Court which would declare that a state could not exclude slavery from its borders. Lincoln charged Douglas with active attempts to secure this decision. It was under these circumstances that Lincoln asked the third question, viz.:—“If the Supreme Court of the United States shall decide that the States cannot exclude slavery from their limits, are you in favor of acquiescing in, adopting, and following such decision as a rule of political action?â€
If Douglas answered this question in the affirmative it would put him in the position of substantiating Lincoln’s charge of conspiracy. This would be very embarrassing for Douglas and give Lincoln a decided advantage. On the other hand, Douglas’s position would be just as embarrassing and his opponent would reap as great an advantage, if he answered in the negative, for then he would be opposing a decision of the Supreme Court,—the very thing for which he had so bitterly denounced Lincoln. The question was soworded that an affirmative or a negative answer would be equally disastrous.
By a judicious use of such questions the debater may direct the discussion along the narrow channel which it should take, and bring out in a forcible way any defects in his opponents’ position. No debater should consider himself thoroughly prepared for rebuttal until he has worked out carefully a list of questions framed in accordance with the principles here suggested.
Another form of attack which properly belongs under this heading is that of demanding a definite plan. If the speaker is upholding the negative in a debate on the question of the inheritance tax, he should demand that the next affirmative speaker show a definite plan of taxation. If the opponent refuses to present a definite plan he may be charged with impracticability, vagueness, and a fear that no plan which he might present could be defended safely. On the other hand if he presents a definite plan it may be easy to point out glaring defects in its construction. In either case the demanding of a definite plan may be made to work to the advantage of the debater. If a definite plan is demanded it is usually best to reply that the discussion is on principles not plans. In this way attention may be called to the underlying principles of the controversy and it can be shown that, after the difficulties which they present have been solved, a discussion of a definite plan will be in order and its construction will then be a simple matter. This method of procedure, both as regards the demanding of a definite plan and the answering of that demand, affords ample scope for the argumentative mind to display its breadth of perception and its keenness in analysis.
After a satisfactory amount of rebuttal material has beencollected the debater must arrange this material in such a way that any particular part of it will be readily accessible. Since the amount of evidence must necessarily be so large, that all of it cannot be kept in mind at one time, some easy method of classification is necessary which will include everything that may be of use when the rebuttal is to be presented. The importance of this systematic classification becomes apparent when the debater stops to reflect that he has enough rebuttal material for a one or two hour speech, while the actual time which is allowed for its presentation in a formal debate is usually five or six minutes. Even if there is no time limit the debater must not weary the audience by long delays while he searches for material. The debater must know exactly where each piece of evidence may be found. It is not sufficient that he have a vague recollection that somewhere in his notes is an authoritative fact which will refute the argument his opponent has just advanced. He must know just where to find that fact. If his opponent has misquoted statistics from the Report of the United States Industrial Commission it is not sufficient for him to know that somewhere within the nineteen volumes of that report is a small table of statistics which will prove his opponent to be wrong. He must be able to turn to the exact volume and page. He may be confident that an authority, which he has quoted as favoring his position, is really on his side of the case; but if he cannot give an exact reference to the place where such authority is to be found, his opponent may dispute the assertion with impunity. These and many similar situations which are bound to arise in actual debating make it plain that the task of arranging material is a very important part of the preparation for rebuttal.
The rebuttal cards should all be classified under a sufficient number of headings to cover the entire field of the evidencecollected. The exact number of headings will, of course, vary with different questions. There must be, however, a sufficient number of divisions to separate the cards into groups small enough to be handled easily. On the other hand the number of divisions must not be so great as to become confusing in themselves. In actual practice from four to eight divisions are sufficient for practical purposes. In a debate on the proposition, “Resolved, that the United States should make no discrimination between the immigrants from China and those from other countries,†the rebuttal cards were divided into the following groups; (1) Economic influence, (2) Social influence, (3) Political influence.
If the number of cards in any one group is too large to be handled easily, that group may be divided under two or more sub-heads. For example, in the division above made the topic “Social influences†was found to include a much larger number of cards than either of the other subdivisions; hence it was divided into two sub-heads, (a) assimilation, (b) morality and crime. This careful division of the material will make the debater so familiar with all his rebuttal evidence that he can without hesitation lay his hands upon just what is wanted. The work of locating particular points of evidence must be done with dispatch. Time is valuable, for the debater will soon be called upon to answer the argument that is being presented. Moreover, if he spends too much time looking over his cards and if the process requires all his attention, he may lose some very important statement which is being made by his opponent.
In a formal debating contest it is sometimes advisable to have the alternate take charge of the entire mass of rebuttal material. In this case the cards should be typewritten so that each member of the team can read any card as well as any other member of the team can read it. The alternate sits at the table with the team and has all the rebuttal cardsin a filing box before him. Then as each argument is brought up he quickly finds the most effective rebuttal material on that point and hands it over to the speaker who is to answer that argument. This system of working allows the regular members of the team to give all their attention to what their opponents are saying. The alternate performs the mechanical work of finding the particular evidence required. With a team whose members have worked out the question together in a thorough manner, this method is very effective.
Following the suggestions regarding sources of material, the debater will have before him a number of books, papers, and documents. When the time comes to use these sources of material the debater cannot delay the discussion by hunting through them in an aimless fashion in search of the precise information which he needs. He must be able to pick out the volume and turn to the exact page without hesitation and at a moment’s notice. This requisite demands the same systematized classification that was employed in the arranging of rebuttal cards. One method of making this classification is to have a card index of the material. The general topic to be refuted should be placed at the top of the card. Below this should be an exact reference to the book, paper, or document in which the material for refutation is found. Then when an opponent puts forth his argument it is only necessary to look it up in the card index and turn to the reference. The places in the books, papers, and documents, to which reference is made in the card index, should be marked with long slips of paper extending beyond the tops of the books and having on the protruding parts the numbers of the pages which they mark. Furthermore, the particular portions of the page which are applicable should be marked with marginal lines. Great care should be taken to mark only those passages which are exactly to the point; otherwise toomuch time will be wasted in referring to matters which may be relevant but are of no value as proof.
This system of indexing material contained in books, papers, and documents will be found to be almost indispensable when the time for use arrives. The debater must practice this system until he can manipulate it with ease and rapidity. In the case of team work, the alternate may have charge of this index, which can be made a part of the large card classification. He can then provide each rebuttal speaker with the proper material as the occasion for its use arrives. Of course, in the case of a single speaker, where only a very few volumes are to be used in the rebuttal the system of card indexing can be dispensed with, but the system of marking the exact references by means of slips of paper and marginal lines should always be employed.
In the beginning the working of this system, as that of any system, will seem awkward and unwieldy; but the debater must practice using it under all argumentative conditions. In this way he will gain in the ease and rapidity with which he can manipulate its parts. When this is accomplished he will have a most effective aid to the kind of rebuttal work which secures results. The student must not fail to make his preparation in this respect thorough. Every detail must be mastered; every rebuttal card must be so well in mind that a mere glance will be sufficient to reveal its contents. The reading of rebuttal cards takes all the life out of a rebuttal argument. This part of the argument more than any other must be delivered with native force and enthusiasm. Effective presentation in rebuttal follows only from the most thorough preparation.
After the preparation above outlined has been completed one task yet remains. The debater must have an effective conclusion for his rebuttal speech. He must not rely upon achance inspiration of the moment. Experience proves that for all but professional speakers, and oftentimes even for them, it is best to have a committed summary or closing plea. In the case of a debating team the work of closing the argument should be left to the last speaker in rebuttal. This summary should be the strongest statement that it is possible to produce. All the main arguments that have been presented should be summarized. The position of both sides of the controversy should be set forth in clear and vigorous language. If questions have been asked, or demands have been made of the opposition, a direct and forcible reference to the effect of these questions or demands should be made. Then, summoning all the powers of eloquent utterance of which he has command, the speaker should make a closing plea for the adoption or defeat of the proposition.
Examples of effective closing pleas are too numerous to need extended discussion. In debating the proposition “Resolved, that the Federal Government should levy a progressive inheritance tax. Granted, that such a tax would be held constitutional,†the last speaker for the affirmative delivered the following summary:
“We have asked our opponents, how will the enforcement of present laws reach the evils of congested wealth? What are the benefits derived from the perpetuation of such fortunes? Where will you place the power of control, at Wall Street or at Washington? Have the gentlemen answered these questions to your satisfaction?
“We have accepted the burden that devolved upon the affirmative and we have met that burden by showing that the Federal government needs this revenue because of its rapidly increasing functions; that it is practicable because it has twice been in actual operation; and that as a Federal tax it possesses the qualities of certainty, elasticity, and regularity.
“We have clearly shown that as a regulative measure it is necessary for the reasons, that the perpetuation of swollen fortunes is productive of industrial inequalities which are un-American and of evils which it is beyond the power of ordinary legislation to control. We have demonstrated its practicability by proposing a definite plan which will remedy the evil, first, by actually taking a part of these enormous accumulations, and second, by compelling their greater distribution. Finally we set forth the beneficial effects of such a measure upon public opinion—resulting in the greater responsibility of wealth and in removing the incentive to corruption.
“In short, while the gentlemen of the opposition are standing as the champions of swollen fortunes, magnates, and a governing aristocracy founded upon wealth and corruption with the center of power at Wall Street, we stand for the suppression of corruption, the resurrection of individual opportunity, and government by the great mass of the common people with the center of power at Washington. The negative would foster an aristocracy; we would perpetuate democracy.
“We plead, therefore, that in passing upon this resolution, you consider the welfare of the whole nation, that you consider this measure as legislation complementary to the regulative laws already enacted; that you consider the opinions of eminent statesmen, and the conservative will of the people—in short, that you adopt this resolution.â€
The conclusion for the final rebuttal speech should be prepared with the same care that is exercised in the preparation of the conclusion for the main argument. It differs from the latter in that it takes more into account the arguments of the opposition. It is the last chance the debater has to plead for his cause, and he must make the most of his opportunity.
II. Presentation of rebuttal.
In the presentation of rebuttal all the principles which are laid down in the next chapter should be observed. They are of equal importance and apply with equal force to both the main argument and the rebuttal speeches. However, the conditions under which the two speeches are delivered are very different and it is therefore necessary that we give special attention to the presentation of rebuttal. The difficulty of the task which now confronts us is even greater than that which we must consider in connection with the delivery of the main argument. The qualities of mind which success demands are of a higher order, and the mental exercise involved is of greater value. The ability to grasp the essential features of a situation as it presents itself, the ability to analyze keenly and determine definitely and without hesitation upon a plain course of action, and finally the power of presenting clearly and forcibly the conclusions which have been reached, are all comprised in the art of debate.
The first essential of rebuttal work is a keen interest in, and attention to, the opposing argument. It is impossible to rebut an argument which has not been heard or one which was not understood. If the preparation for rebuttal has been thorough and has conformed to the plan laid down in the first part of this chapter, the student will be so familiar with the possible lines of discussion that he will have no difficulty in grasping his opponents’ arguments. The debater should experience a keen interest in the way in which the opposing speakers will present their arguments. He must not let his mind wander from the subject for a single instant. All his mental power must be concentrated on the business in hand. He must not be confused by any unusual method ofpresentation. If his preparation has been thorough no essentially new argument will be brought forth, although arguments with which he is familiar are quite likely to be presented in a form with which he is unfamiliar. He must grasp quickly the significance of such arguments and reduce them to terms in which they are clear to his own mind. Then he must correlate his own rebuttal material with what he has heard. He must see the relation which each part bears to the whole and be able to weigh the relative values of the contentions. The keynote of effective rebuttal is keen attention to the opposing argument.
No attempt should be made to refute everything which the opposing speaker presents. In breaking a chain it is just as effective to break one link as it is to break every link. The successful debater must analyze keenly and sift the essential from the trivial. If his opponent is a skilled debater he will have certain definite main issues and definite evidence and reasoning. The task of refutation is thus made easy. The main issues are refuted directly by showing that he has not analyzed the question rightly, or by showing mistakes in evidence or in processes of reasoning. If his opponent is not skilled in debate his argument must be reduced to certain definite parts and then refuted in like manner. Very often the rebuttal cards will contain the exact arguments presented by an opponent, but more often it becomes necessary for the speaker to select the vital parts of the opposing contentions and write them down briefly. He should be sure that he states the exact position of his opponent. Otherwise he is thrown open to the charge of willful misrepresentation, or carelessness, or lack of ability in grasping what has been said. Only that which is vital should be selected and it should be written down either in clear-cut phrases, or in the exactwords of the opponent. The latter plan is often most effective because it offers the least chance for a dispute as to what the argument really is. On the other hand where the position of an opponent is unmistakable, although somewhat ambiguously expressed, a decided advantage is gained by stating his position in a better way than it has previously been stated. In any event an argument is not selected for refutation until it has been set off from all subsidiary material by brief, clear phrasing.
Where several means of proving a proposition have been presented, but only one of them could in reality stand as proof, that is the one to discuss in rebuttal. The debater should be constantly on the lookout for arguments or evidence which may be combined under one heading. By a judicious combination of related arguments the destructive work of rebuttal may be made to cover a wider field. Furthermore, much can be done to widen the field by means of ingeniously arranging the order of rebuttal arguments in such a way that certain arguments may be met by referring them to contentions which have already been answered. In any event the debater should arrange his arguments in their most effective order.
When rebuttal is given in introducing the main argument, it is well to begin by answering the last argument presented by the last speaker for the opposition. This action on the part of the debater shows quickness and ability and is sure to make a favorable impression on the hearers. This may be followed by a refutation of one or two points which have been especially emphasized by the preceding speaker, after which the debater should swing naturally and easily into his main constructive argument. Furthermore, as will be suggested in connection with the chapter on delivery, the main speech should be so adapted to the contentions of the opposition that the whole constructive argument is usedto tear down the case of the opposition as well as to be constructive of one’s own case.
The reading of exact quotations from authority usually plays a very important part in a debate. Especially is this true in cases where a dispute arises as to what a particular authority says on the point at issue. For example, if the controversy hinges on the exact wording of a decision of the Supreme Court, the speaker who produces that decision and reads from it in the proper manner has gained a decided advantage. The production of the large leather bound book, in itself, aids the effect which it is the speaker’s intention to produce. It is something tangible, something which the audience can see; it is the visual symbol of superior authority.
Following out the preparation for this reading which has already been suggested, the student should turn without hesitation to the passage to be read. He must be so familiar with the wording that he can follow it with but an occasional glance at the printed page. He must still look directly at the audience and refer to the book only for the purpose of guiding his reading. He should read slowly and deliberately, emphasizing those parts which bear directly on the point at issue. If a statement contradicts flatly the contentions of the opposition it is well to read it over again in order to emphasize it more forcibly.
In a formal contest the individual debater must work with his team. It is just as important that the members of a debating team work together as it is that the members of a football team work together. In formal debating contests one team is pitted against another team. It is not a struggle between the individuals composing the teams but a strugglebetween the teams themselves. Therefore each must sacrifice his own inclinations for the good of the team. When there is a necessity for rebutting an argument which has been advanced by the opposition, the next speaker must rebut such argument. This must be done notwithstanding the fact that the rebuttal for that argument is a pet piece of property belonging to another member of the team who will speak later in the program. This point cannot be emphasized too strongly.
The object of debate is to reveal the truth. One who speaks in public on any question is under obligation to inculcate right principles into the minds of his hearers. Vanity, subterfuge, resentment, and malice have no place in debate. Only the truth should prevail; and nothing but the truth will prevail in the end. Therefore the attitude of the debater toward his work must be one of sincerity and respect. His whole personality should indicate this state of mind. The use of invective, ridicule, or satire towards one’s opponents is clearly out of keeping with this spirit, and nothing of such a nature should be allowed to intrude itself into the discussion.
The day has passed when “bullyragging†the opposition passed for argument and won the respect of an audience. The simple fact remains that an opponent’s argument, not his personality, is to be refuted. The moment invective, ridicule, or satire enter, they drive out that spirit of calm inquiry after truth which should be the controlling spirit of every controversy. Although the hearers as a whole seem to acquiesce in a vindictive spirit, laugh at sarcastic comments, and appear interested in a belligerent attitude, the moment the excitement has subsided a reaction sets in and their respect for the speaker who has amused and entertained them in this way is dead. If an opponent has used these unkindweapons against you, the most effective reply that you can make is to ignore them and begin at once a continuation of the discussion in a plain, orderly manner.
It is both discourteous and unnecessary to accuse an opponent of dishonesty, or misrepresentation. If he has really indulged in these unfair means the evidence advanced in rebuttal will reveal that fact. When any difference arises it is best to assume that the opponent is honestly mistaken. A favorite method of Lincoln’s was to show that his opponent’s conclusion appeared to be right on the first consideration, but that a more extended investigation revealed the fact that it was unsound. Sometimes he even took great care to explain that he had himself formerly held the opinions which his opponents were attempting to defend, and then by skillful use of evidence he would show why he had changed his own opinion. In this way, without giving offense to his opponents or to his audience, he was able in many cases to win them to his cause without their looking upon him as an active agency in producing the change.
A debater must deal honestly with his opponents. It is dishonest and immoral to present evidence in such a way that it will appear to show as true that which the debater knows to be untrue. No concealment or suppression of fact designed to mislead the opposition should be tolerated. Sometimes vital issues are ignored or an attempt is made to conceal them under a display of confusing language. Such methods are reprehensible. Nothing but absolute fairness in the treatment of opponents will gain any permanent advantage, for even from the selfish standpoint honesty and fairness are best. A speaker cannot impress his audience with his fair-mindedness unless he is treating his opponents in a fair manner. An appearance of fairness always gains a respectful hearing for a cause. A man must be a man before he can be anything else. That fine sense of personal courtesywhich characterizes the gentleman, and the earnest desire for truth which denotes the scholar, are fundamental requisites for him who would persuade.
After the debater has answered what he conceives to be the essential arguments of the opposition, he should present his final summary. Where a time limit is fixed beyond which he may not speak, he must allow himself ample time to deliver this closing plea entire. The necessity of stopping before the end is reached destroys the sense of completeness which this conclusion is designed to give the argument. The form of this summary has been discussed in a previous section. All aids to a persuasive delivery discussed in the chapter on delivering the argument must be employed to give force and conviction to this last appeal. The end of the discussion has been reached, and the debater, if his preparation has been in accordance with the principles which we have considered, has put forth his best efforts. All the weeks or months of preparation must now be crystalized into one final effort, and the speaker must realize his own responsibility. He should feel sure that his cause will triumph, and the fire and vigor of his delivery must manifest this fact to the audience. He should remember that he is fighting for principles of right which are eternal. Even the defeat of the moment, if it come to him, should in no wise make him afraid. Victory should not elate, nor defeat depress, the spirit of truth which ever should be the sure foundation of those whose high calling it is to persuade men to act in accordance with that which is right.