APPENDIX D.

Emilia sonchifolia,D. C.(=Cacalia sonchifolia, Linn.).

"Shudimudi" of the Bengalese, or "Kadoo-para" of the Cinghalese. An annual, with erect or spreading, branching stems, and variously shaped leaves, the lower ones being usually lyrate, and the upper more or less amplexicaul, with blunt or sharp auricles. On the Malabar coast the native practitioners, according to Rheede, consider a decoction of this plant to possess antifebrile qualities.

EBENACEÆ.

Diospyros Embryopteris,Pers.(=Embryopteris glutinifera, Roxb.).

An American species ofDiospyros(D. Virginiana, Linn.) is employed as a febrifuge by rustic practitioners in the United States, and O'Shaughnessy states that the bark of the present tree has been given in India, but with doubtful results, in the treatment of intermittent fevers. It is well known as the Gaub-tree, and the viscid, excessively astringent juice of its fruit is used for tanning, and for paying the seams of boats. It is a middle-sized tree, with long elliptic-lanceolate, smooth, coriaceous leaves, and whitish flowers.

APOCYNACEÆ.

Ophioxylon serpentinum,Willd.

"Chivan amelpodi" in Tamul; "Chota Chand" in Hindostanee; "Chandra" in Bengalee; "Patalganni" in Telinga; and "Aikawaireya" in Cinghalese. The root of the Chandra is very bitter, and is administered by the Telinga and also by the Javanese doctors in the form of a decoction, as a remedy in fever cases. It is one of the numberless supposed remedies for the bites of venomous snakes, but, as in many other similar instances, its virtues are fanciful, and its great reputation is probably ascribable to the old doctrine ofsignatures, the plant being a climber and having a twining stem.

Wrightia antidysenterica,R. Br.(=Nerium antidysentericum, Linn.).

The bark of this species ofWrightiais included in some European works on Materia Medica under the name of Tellicherry or Conessi bark. It has long enjoyed a high reputation in India as a tonic and febrifuge; but other parts of the plant likewise appear to possess similar properties, a decoction of the long oat-like seeds being employed in ardent fever. The bark is also given in dysentery. Among the Tamuls it goes by the name of "Veppalei," while the Hindus call it "Curayia," and the Telingas "Pala codija." It is a small tree producing a white ivory-like wood, which has been tried for engraving purposes, but found unsuitable on account of it not being of even quality throughout. It has obovate-oblong, shortly acuminate, smooth leaves, and nearly terminal corymbs of jasmine-like flowers.

ASCLEPIADACEÆ.

Calotropis gigantea,R. Br.(=Asclepias gigantea, Linn.).

Various parts of the Yercum-plant have long been employed for medicinal purposes by the native doctors, and experiments made by Anglo-Indian practitioners have proved that the inner bark of the root, called Mudar bark, is a valuable remedy in leprosy, and that it may also be given with advantage in several other complaints, including intermittent and other fevers. An elastic gum and a valuable fibre are also obtained from the plant. There are two varieties of Yercum, one with white and the other with purple flowers, the former forming a tree fifteen or twenty feet high, and the latter a shrub.

LOGANIACEÆ.

Strychnos Nux-Vomica,Linn.

According to Roxburgh the exceedingly bitter wood of the Nux Vomica is employed as a remedy in fevers of the intermittent kind, and also for the cure of snake-bites, when that of the next species cannot be obtained. The poisonous bark is commonly sold in the Indian bazaars in place of the febrifuge "Rohuna bark," which is in reality the produce ofSoymida febrifuga. It is the false Angostura bark of our Materia Medica. Nux Vomica seeds have also been administered with some benefit in intermittent fever. TheStrychnos Nux-Vomicaforms a small tree, has oval, entire, shining leaves, strongly marked with from three to five longitudinal nerves, and bears small corymbs of greenish-white flowers.

Strychnos colubrina,Linn.

The "Naga musadi" of the Telingas, or "Koochilaluta" of the Bengalese. The wood of this species is greatly esteemed by the natives as a remedy for snake-bites, and is also given in cases of intermittent fever. It is a climbing shrub with thick woody tendrils, elliptic-oblong, blunt-pointed, three-nerved leaves, and small corymbs of yellowish flowers.

GENTIANACEÆ.

Ophelia Chirata,Griseb.(=Gentiana Chirayta, Roxb., andAgathotes Chirayta, Don.).

The name "Chirata" or "Chirayta," by which this plant is commonly known in India, is derived from the Sanscrit "Kirataticta." The dried stems of the Chirata have long been famed amongst the natives of India as a tonic and febrifuge; and they have also gained considerable reputation amongst European practitioners in India, who, however, have found them to be more efficacious in the cure of intermittent fever when employed in combination with the seeds of theGuilandina Bonducella, mentioned above. It is an annual plant, two or three feet high, with smooth round stems and opposite, ovate or somewhat cordate, acuminate leaves, marked with from five to seven nerves, and bears yellow flowers. Chirata is included in the Edinburgh Pharmacopœia.

Ophelia angustifolia,Don.(=Swertia angustifolia, Ham.).

The stems of this species are called "Pukaree Chirata" in the Himalayas, and are substituted for the true Chirata. The species is distinguished by its stems being somewhat four-sided, by its much narrower, sharper-pointed, obscurely three-nerved, short-stalked leaves, and by its white, violet-spotted flowers. Both this and the true Chirata are natives of the Himalayas.

Ophelia elegans,Wight.

It has recently been discovered that the stems of this South Indian species are made up into bundles in the same manner as the Himalayan Chiratas, with which they have hitherto been confounded in the bazaars. The plant, however, has a different native name, being called "Salaras" or "Salajit" by the inhabitants of the Pulney hills; but it is considered equally efficacious as a febrifuge. It has obsoletely four-sided stems, narrow, ovate-lanceolate, sessile, three-nerved leaves, tapering to a slender point, and beautiful pale-blue flowers.

SALVADORACEÆ.

Salvadora,sp.

A decoction of the bark of a species ofSalvadorais recommended by Hindu doctors in cases of low fever, and as a tonic. Great confusion, however, exists among the species of this genus, and it is therefore uncertain which one is thus employed. Ainslie mentionsSalvadora Persica, but it is very doubtful whether that species is found in any part of India.

CORDIACEÆ.

Cordia Myxa,Linn.

Tonic and febrifuge properties are ascribed to the bark of this tree, it being, according to Horsfield, one of the chief remedies used in fevers by the Javanese, who call it "Kendal." It is a small tree with rounded branches, ovate leaves, smooth on the upper surface but roughish underneath, and usually terminal panicles of flowers, producing yellow, sweet-tasted pulpy fruits about the size of cherries. In the Tamul language it is called "Vidi marum;" "Nekra" in Telinga; "Lesura" in Hindostanee; and "Loloo" in Cinghalese.

SOLANACEÆ.

Solanum xanthocarpum,Schrad. et Wendl.(=Solanum Jacquini, Willd.).

There are two varieties of this plant, one of which was formerly considered a distinct species, and namedSolanum Jacquini. All parts of the latter variety are used medicinally, and it is one of the fever remedies employed by the Cinghalese, who call it "Kattoo-wel-battoo." It is a decumbent, spreading annual plant, armed with numerous long white prickles, and has sinuately-pinnatifid prickly leaves. The Tamuls call it "Kandung Kattiri."

SCROPHULARIACEÆ.

Picrorhiza Kurrooa,Royle.

A small perennial herbaceous plant found in Kemaon, at Gossain-than, and other parts of the Himalayan mountains, where its roots, which are called "Hooling" in Tibet, and have a powerful bitter taste, are used as a febrifuge by the natives, and also sent down to the bazaars of Bengal, where they form one of the many bitter roots sold under the name of "Teeta." The plant grows about six inches high, and has scarcely any stem, its leaves all rising from the summit of the thick root, and also its flower-stalks, which are five or six inches high, and bear a dense spike of small bluish flowers at the top.

Herpestis Monnieria,Humb.(=Gratiola Monnieria, Linn.)

The Cinghalese consider this plant to possess febrifuge virtues: they call it "Loonoo Weela." In India its expressed juice is mixed with petroleum, and used as a topical application in rheumatism. It is a little creeping plant, common in moist places throughout the tropics of both hemispheres, and has obovate-cuneate leaves, bearing solitary long-stalked pale-blue flowers in their axils. The Bengalese call it "Adha birni," and the Telingas "Sambrani-chittoo."

ACANTHACEÆ.

Andrographis paniculata,Nees ab Essen.(=Justicia paniculata, Burm.).

This is the celebrated Creyat, the principal ingredient in the famous bitter tincture calleddrogue amère, so highly esteemed in India for its tonic and stomachic properties, and also as a febrifuge. The entire plant is employed, the intensely bitter principle being found in all parts of it. It is an annual, with stiff quadrangular stems from one to two feet high, bearing smooth lanceolate leaves, attenuated at the base. In the Telinga language it is called "Nella vemoo;" in Bengalese, "Kala-megh;" in Hindustanee, "Calapnath;" and in Tamul, "Kiriat," hence the common Indian name of the plant, Creat or Creyat.

Justicia Adhatoda,Linn.(=Adhatoda Vasica, Nees ab Essen.)

The flowers, leaves, and roots have a bitterish and somewhat aromatic taste, and are supposed to possess antispasmodic properties. An infusion of them, especially of the flowers, is given to prevent the return of rigour in intermittent fever. In Ceylon it is used as an expectorant for children. The Bengalese call the plant "Bakus;" the Tamuls, "Adhatodey;" the Cinghalese, "Paawetta;" the Telingas, "Adasara;" and in Sanscrit it is called "Vasica" or "Uroos." It forms a tree fifteen or twenty feet high, with elliptic oblong leaves, attenuated to both ends, and pale-coloured flowers with purple stripes and rusty spots.

LABIATÆ.

Ocimum sanctum,Linn.

The Tamul physicians prescribe a decoction of the root of this common Indian species of Basil in fever cases, and the juice of the leaves in catarrhal affections. The Brahmins consider the plant sacred to Vishnu, and cultivate it in the vicinity of temples, while the Malays strew it upon the graves of their departed friends. The whole plant generally has a purplish tinge, and grows about a foot high: it has long-stalked, downy, oval leaves,toothed along the edges, and small pale-purple flowers. Its Tamul name is "Toolasee;" its Bengalese, "Kala-toolsee;" and its Cinghalese "Madooroo-tallu."

Anisomeles Malabarica,R. Br.(=Nepeta Malabarica, Linn.).

"Pemayrutie" of the Tamuls; "Moga beerakoo" of the Telingas; and "Bootan Kooshum" in Sanscrit. A shrub, 2 to 5 feet high, clothed with short tomentum, and having oblong-lanceolate leaves, narrowed at the base, and purplish flowers disposed in distant whorls. The leaves are bitter, astringent, and somewhat aromatic, and are given in infusion in the later stages of dysentery and in intermittent fevers. Patients suffering under the last-mentioned disease are also made to inhale the vapour rising from an infusion of the whole plant, in order to induce a copious perspiration.

Geniosporum prostratum,Benth.(=Ocimum prostratum, Linn.).

A small herb used as a febrifuge by the natives of the Madras presidency. It has a prostrate stem and numerous hispid branches, bearing small oblong-lanceolate, serrated leaves, and long spike-like racemes of very small flowers.

Roylea elegans,Wall.(=Phlomis calycina, Roxb., andBallota cinerea, Don.).

According to the late Dr. Royle, after whom the genus is named, this plant is employed as a febrifuge in the Himalayas, where it is called "Putkuroo." It is a much-branched, erect shrub from three to five feet high, having the branches clothed with ash-coloured tomentum, and bearing ovate, sharp-pointed, coarsely toothed leaves, slightly cordate at the base. Its flowers vary from white to pale-rose colour.

VERBENACEÆ.

Premna serratifolia,Linn.(=Premna integrifolia, Linn.).

The warm, bitterish-tasted root of this plant is prescribed in decoction by the native practitioners as a gentle stomachic and cordial in fevers. It has an agreeable odour. The tree is called "Moonnee" by the Tamuls; "Ghebboonellie" by the Telingas; and "Middee-gass" by the Cinghalese. Its trunk and large branches are armed with spines, and its leaves are ovate or oval, entire or toothed towards the top, of a shining green above and paler underneath.

Vitex trifolia,Linn.

Different parts of this plant are employed medicinally, in various ways and for various diseases, by native doctors in India and also in Java. The part used as a remedy for intermittent fever is the leaves, which arepowdered and taken in water. Pillows stuffed with them are used to cure cold in the head, and headache. It is a decumbent shrub, with the branches, under side of the leaves, and inflorescence mealy-white. There are two varieties: one with trifoliate and the other with simple leaves. Its Tamul name is "Neer-noochie;" its Telinga, "Neela vavilie;" and its Hindustanee, "Nisindha," or "Seduari."

Vitex Negundo,Linn.

This species is considered to have medicinal properties similar to but weaker than the last. The decoction of the root has a pleasant bitter taste, and is administered in cases of intermittent and typhus fever. In Tamul it is called "Noochie;" in Telinga, "Wayalakoo;" in Hindustanee, "Nisunda;" and in Cinghalese, "Sooddoo-nikka." It is a more erect shrub than the last, and its leaves are all compound, consisting of from three to five entire or toothed or deeply pinnatifid leaflets, covered with white meal underneath, as also are the branches and flowers.

NYCTAGINACEÆ.

Boerhaavia diffusa,Linn.(=Boerhaavia procumbens, Roxb.).

The roots of several species ofBoerhaaviaare employed medicinally by the natives of various parts of the world. In India those of the present have the reputation of being antifebrile, and Ainslie also says that the native practitioners include them amongst their laxative medicines. This plant is a herbaceous perennial with decumbent, smooth, or rarely pubescent stems and leaves, the latter varying very much in shape. Among the Bengalese it is known by the name of "Gadha-poorna;" and it is the "Pittasooddopala" of the Cinghalese. Its leaves are eaten as a potherb.

EUPHORBIACEÆ.

Tragia cannabina,Willd.

"Sirroo canchorie" in the Tamul; and "Doolya-gunda" in the Telinga language. The root of this plant has a pleasant odour when fresh: the native doctors consider it to possess diaphoretic and alterative qualities, and they prescribe an infusion of it in ardent fever. It is an erect shrub, about four feet high, with hispid stems and leaves, the latter being divided into three sinuated lobes. Roxburgh says that the hairs on this plant sting as bad as those of the common nettle.

PIPERACEÆ.

Chavica Betle,Miq.(=Piper Betle, Linn.).

This affords the celebrated Betle leaves, so extensively employed as a masticatory in the East. Ainslie says that the warm juice of the leaves is prescribed by the native doctors as a febrifuge, in the quantity of a small spoonful twice daily.

Piper nigrum,Linn.

Black pepper has long been known to possess febrifuge powers: an infusion of it in some kind of spirit is a popular remedy for preventing the return of the paroxysms in intermittent fevers. The root, however, is the part used by the native doctors in India, and is administered in the form of a decoction.Piperin, one of the constituents of pepper, has been said to be a more certain and speedy febrifuge than the chinchona alkaloids, but O'Shaughnessy says that after repeated and careful trials he found it was not of the least utility. The Tamul name of the plant is "Shuvium."

ZINGIBERACEÆ.

Curcuma longa,Linn.

The uses of the various kinds of Turmeric for dyeing purposes and as a condiment, particularly for the preparation of curry-powder, are well known, both in this country and to the natives of India; but the latter consider that it also possesses medicinal virtues, and give it as a stimulant and tonic in intermittent fever and some other diseases. European practitioners at one time regarded it as useful in jaundice.

LILIACEÆ.

Allium sativum,Linn.

Ainslie says that the Hindus express a stimulating oil from common garlic, which they prescribe internally in ague to prevent the recurrence of the paroxysms, and use externally in paralytic and rheumatic affections. Garlic is called "Vullay poondoo" in Tamul; "Lassun" in Hindostanee; and "Lasuna" in Sanscrit.

ORONTIACEÆ.

Acorus Calamus,Linn.

The rhizomes of the common Sweet-Flag are well known in some parts of England as a cure for ague, and the natives of the East are well awareof their virtues in this respect. Indian practitioners also reckon it valuable in the "indigestions, stomach-aches, and bowel affections of children," so much so, indeed, that, according to Ainslie, "there is a penalty incurred by any druggist who will not open his door in the middle of the night and sell it if demanded." The Bengalese call it "Shwet buch;" the Cinghalese, "Wadakaha;" and the Hindus, "Bach."

Pothos scandens,Linn.

The native practitioners use this plant in putrid fevers. It is an epiphyte with slender rooting stems adhering to the branches of trees like ivy, and has entire, lanceolate, smooth, coriaceous leaves, tapering upwards to a point and blunt and rounded at the base, where they are articulated with the winged stalk.

GRAMINACEÆ.

Andropogon muricatus,Retz.

The fragrant aromatic roots of this grass, called Cuscus or Vetivert, are only employed for perfumery purposes in this country, but in India they are well known as the material of which window and door screens are made, and the native doctors, moreover, consider them to possess medicinal virtues, prescribing an infusion of them as a diaphoretic and gentle stimulant in some kinds of fever. "Vittie" is the Tamul name of the plant, and "Vayr" in the same language signifiesroot, and, by combining and corrupting these, Europeans have formed the wordVetivert; while its other European name, Cuscus, is derived from the Persian "Khus-Khus." In Hindustanee it is called "Useer;" and in Sanscrit "Viratara."

Andropogon Iwarancusa,Roxb.

The natives administer an infusion of the roots of this grass, combined with pepper, in fevers, of both the continued and intermittent kind. It has a bitter, warm, pungent taste, and fragrant odour. The specific name is derived from the Bengalee and Hindustanee, which is variously spelt "Ibharankusha," "Iwarankusha," "Kurankusha," or "Iwarancussa."

Andropogon Calamus-aromaticus,Royle.

According to Royle, this is the κάλαμος ἀραματικός of the ancient Greeks, and the Sweet-cane or Calamus of the Bible. When chewed it has a strong taste of ginger, whence it is commonly called Ginger-grass. The native doctors give an infusion of it as a stomachic and febrifuge; and they also prepare from it a very fragrant aromatic oil, which they esteem very highly as a liniment in chronic rheumatism. This is sent to this country as grass-oil, or ginger-grass oil, and is sold by our perfumers as oil of geranium or spikenard.

REPORT ON THE CULTIVATION OF CHINCHONAS IN SOUTHERN INDIA. BY WILLIAM G. McIVOR, ESQ., SUPERINTENDENT OF CHINCHONA-CULTIVATION IN THE NEILGHERRY HILLS.

Rearing Seeds.—Thefirst sowing of imported seeds took place in the beginning of February 1860. No certain data being given for the treatment of Chinchona-seeds, our first operations were necessarily experimental, and a good number of seeds were lost by being sown in too retentive a soil, and supplied with what, to Chinchona-seeds, proved to be an excess of moisture; the greatest success we obtained in our first attempts was with the use of a soil composed almost entirely of burned earth, and of this sowing nearly sixty per cent. germinated, the temperature of the earth being about 70°. The number of days required before germination took place in the several sowings varied from sixty-two to sixty-eight. The seedlings made but little progress for the first six weeks, but after that time they sprung into rapid growth, averaging from 1¼ to 2 inches per mensem.

Seeds of the valuable Chinchona Condaminea, received on the 16th February 1862, were sown on the same day in a very light open soil composed of a beautifully open sort of sand, with a very small admixture of leaf-mould. Our experience with the first seeds having established beyond all doubt that the Chinchonas are very impatient of any excess of moisture, particular care was taken in the preparation of the soil used in this sowing. The earth was in the first instance exposed to the sun for two or three days and thoroughly dried, it was then heated to about 212° in order to destroy all grubs or larva of insects; after being allowed to cool, it was brought into the potting-shed and watered sufficiently to make it moist, but only to that degree of moisture that the particles of soil would not adhere together on being pressed firmly with the hand, that is, the earth on being laid down was sufficiently dry to break and fall into its usual form. With the soil in this state the pots were filled, the surface lightly pressed down, and the seeds sown thereon, being lightly covered with a sprinkling of sand. The pots were then placed on a slight bottom heat of about 72°. These were never watered in the strict sense of the word; when the surface got dry they were slightly sprinkled with a fine syringe just sufficient to damp the surface, but never to penetrate the soil. Under this treatmentthe seeds began to germinate very vigorously on the sixteenth day after sowing, and now, 17th March 1862, or twenty-nine days after sowing, upwards of sixty per cent. of the whole of the perfect seeds sown have germinated, and we may fairly hope to rear over ninety per cent. of this sowing. I may, however, observe that these seeds possessed the great advantage of being forwarded to India in a letter, and thus they were never subjected to the damaging effects produced on seeds sent out in air-tight parcels. The reason of this is the want of a circulation of air through the packets, and a consequent deposit of moisture on the interior of the outer covering by every increase and decrease of temperature on the voyage. As soon as the seeds germinate they are carefully pricked out into fresh pots (the soil being prepared as before described for the seeds). This must of course be done with very great care, the radicle being carefully covered with soil, while the seed and cotyledons are kept above the surface. In this way about twenty-five seedlings are transplanted into a four-inch pot, and treated in every respect the same as the seeds; that is, they are never watered, the soil being merely sprinkled as before stated to keep it in that medium state of moisture in which it was first put into the pots. This prevents the damping off of the seedlings, to which they are very liable when treated otherwise; it also greatly facilitates their growth and the formation of roots, the soil being so perfectly open that it is readily affected by the atmosphere, and thus kept in the most favourable condition for promoting vegetation. When treated in this way our seedlings have made an average growth in ten months of over eighteen inches, the growth being much more rapid towards the end of the ten months than in the earlier stages.

Propagation.—As soon as the seedlings and imported plants attained sufficient size, they were propagated by being layered; in this way it was found that they rooted readily in about six weeks or two months, and threw out shoots from every bud; and not only this, but many latent buds were developed, and a fine growth of young wood produced for succeeding layers and cuttings. The principle of layering, being so well known to English gardeners, requires no detail; but in the Chinchona-plants it was found that the layers were very liable tobleed, and this not only weakened the plants but retarded the formation of roots; this we found to be remedied in a great degree by inserting in the cut a triangular piece of perfectly dry broken porous brick. An abundance of young wood being produced, we proceeded to propagate by cuttings, the earth being prepared with great care, the same as for the seeds, with the exception of not being heated. The ends of the cuttings are placed upon pieces of perfectly dry porous brick, around the sides of the pots. They are then placed on a bottom heat of 75° or 80°; and, with this treatment, young and tender wood roots in about three weeks or one month, older wood in about six weeks to two months. With cuttings of the young wood our loss has not exceeded two per cent., and with older wood about ten per cent.

Our object being to produce the largest number of plants in the shortestpossible space of time, it was found that cuttings and layers required more wood than could be conveniently spared, and it was resolved to try the propagation by buds; in this respect the success has been most satisfactory. The secret of success entirely lies in the amount of moisture given; if in excess, they rot immediately, but, if sufficient care is exercised in reference to moisture, the losses will not exceed three or four per cent. Six C. Calisaya buds put in on the 30th January all rooted in forty-one days. It may be observed that it is not necessary that a leaf should be attached to the bud: this is no doubt an advantage, although we have struck many buds of the red bark without leaves, and also a few of the Calisayas.

It ought to be explained that the reason why the earth is brought to a medium state of moisture before being put into the pots is because it is never afterwards watered to such an extent as to render it really wet, being in fact just kept in that state of moisture in which it was originally placed in the pots, and this uniform and medium state of moisture is more easily retained by the pots being plunged in beds of earth. The reason why we found this system necessary was, that, when the soil was watered in the usual way after the seedlings or cuttings were placed in it, it was found, from its expansion and adhesion by the action of the water, that its particles were forced far too close together to be beneficial to the growth of the plants, and in many instances this proved to be injurious, vastly retarding their growth.

In the nurseries in the open air the same principle of cultivation and propagation as that described above has been adopted, and, with reference to the condition of the plants and layers, with nearly equal success, the period of rooting of the layers being from two months to ten weeks, while cuttings take from two to three months, the average loss being about fifteen per cent.: this occurs from the impossibility, in the open air, of keeping a uniform state of the atmosphere around the cuttings. With layers this is not so important, as they root quite as surely (though slower) as in the propagating-houses, and flourish equally well.

Formation of Plantations.—The mode of cultivation of these plants likely to prove the most advantageous being uncertain, it was resolved in May and June of 1861 to place out a number of plants under different conditions of shade, exposure, &c., and the result has been that the plants placed without the protection of living shade have made the most satisfactory progress, and borne the dry season without the least injury. The plants placed under living shade were found to be damaged in some degree during the rains by the incessant drip, but on the weather clearing up they threw out new leaves and quickly recovered. Nine months after planting, or at the end of our dry season, these plants were found to be suffering considerably from the drought; and on taking a few of them up, it was found that the holes in which these Chinchonas were planted had become entirely filled by the fibres of the roots of the living trees in their neighbourhood, which had drawn up the whole of the moisture and nourishment from the soil in which the Chinchona-plants were placed. In putting theplants out, which were placed in the open, we of course saw from the first that with the young plants we had to combat the bad effects of excessive evaporation during our dry season, under a bright and scorching sun; we also saw the injury likely to be done to the plants by radiation during bright and cloudless nights. To obviate these disadvantages the plants were sheltered on the approach of the dry season by a rough enclosure of bamboo-branches, with the leaves adhering to them, so as to give them sufficient shade both from the effects of evaporation and radiation. The enclosure is left open on the north side, and enclosed on the south, east, and west; the sun's declination being south during the dry weather. The ground will not be impoverished by the roots of other trees, and the whole of its nourishment is preserved for the Chinchona-plants. At the same time they will, by this treatment, be far more efficiently protected from evaporation and radiation than they would be by the use of living shade, whether caused by forest-trees or by the admixture of faster-growing plants. In addition to this shade of the branches of cut bamboos, the soil around the roots of some of the young Chinchona-plants was covered one or two inches in thickness with half-decayed leaves, and the plants thus treated show a very great luxuriance, which is not exceeded by any of the plants in our propagating-houses. To ascertain the cause of this luxuriance a few of the plants were recently examined, and although at the end of the dry season the soil about the roots was found to be perfectly moist; thousands of young rootlets of great strength were found to have been thrown into the covering of decayed leaves, so that it had become one matted mass of beautiful white roots, many of them nearly the thickness of a crow-quill. On the strength of these observations we have resolved to place out this season seventy-five acres of Chinchona-plants in cleared land, and exactly under the conditions and treatment last described; we also propose planting seventy-five acres under various degrees of living shade, in which every attempt will be made to mitigate as much as possible the injurious effects of this system already described. The cultivation of these plants being experimental, it is necessary that we should give every method of cultivation which appears reasonable a fair trial, and that only developed facts should influence us in giving preference to one method of cultivation over that of another. The distances at which we have prepared to place the plants are for the larger growing species from nine to ten feet apart, for the sorts of medium size eight feet, and for the shrubby sorts seven feet: these distances are of course too close to admit of the plants attaining a full size, but we believe that it will be advantageous to plant them close in the first instance, and thin them out afterwards. In order to illustrate the extreme growth of our plants, it is worthy of note that one or two of them, although not yet twelve months old, have attained a height of about five feet by three and a half feet in diameter through the branches; we may therefore conclude that the plants will in about two years fairly cover the ground if placed at the distances given above. When they begin to crowd and impede the growth of each otherthey will of course be thinned out and pruned; and it is anticipated that a good supply of bark may be obtained by these means in from eight to twelve years, or perhaps earlier.

Ootacamund, 19th March, 1862.

P.S. On the 5th of April the seeds ofC. Condamineawere coming up plentifully, and 4193 seedlings had already been transplanted. 100 seedlings ofC. crispahad also come up. The seeds ofC. Condamineawere coming up at the rate of 500 a-day. At this date there were 25,000 Chinchona-plants on the Neilgherry hills, and all the species, exceptC. lancifolia, were increasing rapidly. It will be some time before Mr. McIvor will be able to propagate from the latter species, owing to the very unhealthy state in which the plants arrived from Java. In April 50 acres of ground were prepared for planting at the Dodabetta site, and 70 acres at Neddiwuttum.

NOTE ON THE EXPORT TRADE IN PERUVIAN BARK FROM THE PORTS OF SOUTH AMERICA, AND ON THE IMPORT TRADE INTO ENGLAND.

Arica, the port for the "Calisaya" bark from Bolivia. In 1859 the export of bark amounted to 192,600 lbs., valued at 17,334l.; and between January and November, 1860, to 388,800 lbs., valued at 35,000l.

Islay, another port for the "Calisaya" bark from Bolivia. In 1859 the export of bark amounted to 146,000 lbs., valued at 13,460l.(of which 136,500 lbs. went to England, and 9500 lbs. to France); and between January and November, 1860, to 107,700 lbs., valued at 9770l.

Payta, the port for the "Crown" barks from Loxa. The price of bark at this port for the last nine years has been twenty-four dollars the cwt.; but during the last year the price has risen to thirty dollars, where it is likely to remain for some time. The usual annual export amounts to 140,000 lbs., the actual quantity shipped in 1861, and it is valued at 8400l.

Guayaquil, the port for the "Red" bark and the "West Coast Carthagena" bark. The quantity exported varies very much in different years, the price being at present about twenty dollars the cwt. In 1857 the export of bark amounted to 516,600 lbs.; in 1858 to 533,300 lbs.; in 1859 to 201,700 lbs.; in 1860 to 91,500 lbs.; and in 1861 to 443,700 lbs.; valued in the last of these years at 17,748l.

The "Grey" barks were exported, in former years, fromCallao, and in small quantities fromHuanchacoandLambayeque, but of late years none has been exported.

The "Carthagena" barks from New Granada are exported from the ports ofCarthagenaandSanta Martha, and also from the little port ofTumacoon the Pacific coast. From 1849 to 1855 great quantities were exported, but in the latter year the supply began to fail. The existing civil war in New Granada has still further injured this trade. No reliable account of the export of bark from the above ports of New Granada has been received.

From the four ports ofArica,Islay,Payta, andGuayaquilthe average amount of bark annually exported may be taken at 912,900 lbs., valued at 59,076l.Small quantities may come from other ports, of which noauthentic account has been obtained; so that the total amount annually exported from South America may be estimated at considerably over 2,000,000 lbs.

There being no duty on the importation of Peruvian bark into England, the returns of the amount imported are much less carefully kept than was formerly the case. The returns, too, are in packages, and not in lbs. or cwts., and these packages vary in weight from 120 lbs. to 60 lbs. The number of packages of Peruvian bark imported into England in 1858 was 19,831; in 1859 the number was 10,651; in 1860 it was 10,456; and in 1861 it was 20,748. Taking the average of the weight of the packages at 80 lbs. each, the quantity imported into England during the last four years would be 4,934,880 lbs., and in the year 1861 about 1,659,840 lbs.

The quantity of Peruvian bark imported into England during the three months ending on March 31st, 1861, was reported to be 306,300 lbs., and during the same period, in the present year, 310,700 lbs. At this rate the annual import would be a little over 1,200,000 lbs., which is probably more correct than the above estimate from the packages.

THE END.

LONDON: PRINTED BY W. CLOWES AND SONS, STAMFORD STREET, AND CHARING CROSS.

MAPofPARTOFPERUto illustrateMr. C. MARKHAM'S JOURNEYTOTHE CHINCHONA FORESTS OFCARAVAYA.

[1]The only valid argument against this change is that it may cause confusion, but the alteration is too slight for this to be possible; and it is not uncommon, among botanists, to correct the usual spelling of genera or species of plants, when it is found to be erroneous. Among other examples of such changes may be enumerated those ofPlumeria, now altered toPlumieria;BufoniatoBuffonia; andGesneriatoGesnera.

[2]See page 490.

[3]In Quichua, when the name of a plant is reduplicated, it almost invariably implies that it possesses some medicinal quality.

[4]La Condamine, Jussieu, and Ruiz all believed that the Indians were aware of the medicinal qualities of Peruvian bark, and that they imparted their knowledge to the Spaniards. Humboldt and Ulloa were of an opposite opinion. The stories of its virtues having been discovered by watching the pumas or South-American lions chewing the bark to cure their fevers, mentioned by Condamine; and of an Indian having found it out by drinking of the waters of a lake into which a chinchona-tree had fallen—told by Geoffroy—are of modern and European origin.

[5]Jussieu says that it is certain that the first knowledge of the efficacy of this bark was derived from the Indians of Malacotas, some leagues south of Loxa.—Weddell,Histoire Naturelle des Quinquinas, p. 15.

[6]Poëppig,Reise.

[7]Mr. Spruce'sReport, p. 25.

[8]The first Marquis of Astorga married Leonora, daughter of Don Fadrique Henriquez, Admiral of Spain, and sister of the Queen of Aragon, who was mother of King Ferdinand the Catholic: so that Ana was sixth cousin to her contemporary King Philip IV

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