CLASS VI.—WORMS.

261.The SILK-WORM is a smooth and somewhat lead-coloured caterpillar, produced from the eggs of a moth(Phalæna mori)which is found in great abundance in China, the East Indies, the Levant, several parts of Italy, and the South of Spain.

So great is the importance ofsilk, in a commercial view, that, in most of the Eastern countries of the world, a close attention is paid to the growth and cultivation of the insects by which it is produced. Each moth lays about two hundred small straw-coloured eggs. As soon as the worms are hatched they are fed with the tenderest leaves of the mulberry-tree, or with these leaves chopped very fine; and, when they have attained sufficient strength, they are removed into wicker baskets, or placed upon shelves made of wickerwork. Here they feed for about thirty days, until they are full grown, when they are furnished with little bushes of heath or broom. On these they spin the nests in which they are about to change into chrysalids. These nests have the general name of coccoons, and consist of somewhat oval-shaped balls of silk, of marigold colour. The exterior of the coccoon is composed of a rough cotton-like substance, calledfloss. Within this is the thread, which is more distinct and even; and appears arranged in a very irregular manner, winding off first from one side of the coccoon, and then from the other. Previously to the silk being wound from the coccoons they are baked for about an hour to kill the chrysalids they contain. When the silk is to be wound off, the coccoons are put into small coppers or basins, of water, each placed over a small fire. The ends of the threads are found by brushing the coccoons gently with a whisk made for the purpose; and so fine are these threads that eight or ten of them are generally rolled off into one. In winding them, they are each passed through a hole in an horizontal iron bar placed at the edge of the basin, which prevents them from being entangled.

The art of manufacturing silk was known to theancients; but in Europe this commodity, long after its invention, was of very great value. We are informed that, in the third century, the wife of the Roman Emperor Aurelian entreated him to give her a robe of purple silk, and that he refused this under an allegation that he could not buy such a robe for its weight in gold.

It is not certain at what precise period the silk manufacture was first introduced into England. But, in the year 1242, we are told that part of the streets of London were covered or shaded with silk, for the reception of Richard, the brother of Henry the Third, on his return from the Holy Land. In 1454 the silk manufactures of England are said to have been confined to ribbons, laces, and other trifling articles. Queen Elizabeth, in the third year of her reign, was furnished by her silk-woman with a pair of black knit silk stockings, which she is stated to have admired as "marvellous delicate wear;" and after the using of which she no longer had cloth ones, as before. James the First, whilst king of Scotland, requested of the Earl of Mar the loan of a pair of silk stockings to appear in before the English ambassador, enforcing his request with this cogent appeal, "For ye would not, sure, that your King should appear as a scrub before strangers."

China may be said to be the country of silk; indeed it furnishes large quantities of raw silk to all the neighbouring nations, and to Europe; and also for clothing the greatest part of its own inhabitants. There are in China very few, except the lowest orders, who are not clad in silk garments. The best Chinese silk is that which is imported from Nankin.

The principal silk manufacture in England is carried on in Spitalfields, London.

Although the whole of the silk which is produced in Europe, and the greatest proportion of that manufactured in China, is obtained from the common silkworm; yet considerable quantities are procured, in India, from the caterpillars of other moths. Of thesethe most important are theTUSSEHandARRINDYsilk worms (Phalæna paphiaandcinthia), both of which are natives of Bengal and the adjacent provinces. The silk from these kinds of worms has long been used by the natives. The former, which is commonly called tusseh silk, is woven into a coarse and dark-coloured kind of cloth, calledtusseh dooties, much worn by the Brahmins and other sects of Hindoos. Of the arrindy silk is manufactured a coarse kind of white cloth, of seemingly loose texture, but of almost incredible durability. It is employed as clothing both for men and women; and may be used for more than twenty years without decay. In the washing of it, however, care must be taken to use only cold water, as, if put into boiling water, it will become rotten, and will tear like old and decayed cloth. This kind of silk is not only employed for clothing, but, by merchants, as packing cloths, for silks, shawls, and other fine goods. Some manufacturers in England, to whom the silk was shown, were of opinion that it might be made into shawls, equal in quality to any that we receive from India.

262.The HIVE-BEE(Apis mellifica)is a well-known, hymenopterous insect (12), of uniform brown colour, and with somewhat hairy body.Bees live in extremely numerous societies, either in decayed trees, or in habitations prepared for them by mankind, calledhives.Each hive contains, 1, a single female which has the name ofqueen-bee;2, about 1600 males, calleddrones;and, 3, about 20,000 individuals of neither sex, calledworking-bees.It is upon the latter that the whole trouble devolves of constructing combs, or cells, for the honey and for the eggs deposited by the female; collecting and forming the honey, and feeding the grubs which proceed from the eggs, and which afterwards change into bees.

262.The HIVE-BEE(Apis mellifica)is a well-known, hymenopterous insect (12), of uniform brown colour, and with somewhat hairy body.

Bees live in extremely numerous societies, either in decayed trees, or in habitations prepared for them by mankind, calledhives.Each hive contains, 1, a single female which has the name ofqueen-bee;2, about 1600 males, calleddrones;and, 3, about 20,000 individuals of neither sex, calledworking-bees.It is upon the latter that the whole trouble devolves of constructing combs, or cells, for the honey and for the eggs deposited by the female; collecting and forming the honey, and feeding the grubs which proceed from the eggs, and which afterwards change into bees.

Bees' waxis the substance of the combs after the honey has been extracted from them. The best kind is hard, compact, of clear yellow colour, and an agreeable odour, nearly similar to that of honey. It is melted, and cast in moulds of different sizes and shapes.White waxis prepared from common bees' wax by melting it into water, and exposing it, for a considerable time, to the action of the sun, air, and water. When sufficiently bleached, it is cast into thin cakes. The purposes for which wax is applicable are very numerous. Great quantities of white wax are annually consumed in the manufacture of candles; and in making cerates, plasters, and ointments.

Honeyis a sweet and fluid substance, which is collected from flowers, and deposited in the combs for support of the bees and their offspring. The honey made by young bees is purer than any other, and is thence calledvirgin honey. Before the discovery of sugar, honey was of much greater importance than it is at present. Yet both as a delicious article of food, and as the basis of a wholesome fermented liquor calledmead, it is of no mean value even in this country; but in many parts of the Continent, where sugar is much dearer than with us, few articles of rural economy, not of primary importance, would be dispensed with more reluctantly than honey. In the Ukraine some of the peasants have each 400 or 500 bee-hives, and make more profit of their bees than of corn. And in Spain the number of hives is almost incredible: a single parish priest is stated to have possessed 5000.

Bee-hives that are made of straw are usually preferred to any others, as they are not liable to be overheated by the sun; they keep out the cold better than wood, and are cheaper than those formed of any other material. The profit arising from bees, when properly attended to, is very considerable; and, to obtain the greatest possible advantage from them, they should be supplied with every convenience for the support of themselves and their offspring. They should be kept in a good situation; that is, in a country abounding with flowers; at a distance from brew-houses, smelting-works, &c. and in well-constructed hives. In France floating bee-hives are very common. One barge contains from sixty to a hundred hives well defended fromthe inclemency of the weather. With these the owners float gently down the stream, whilst the insects gather honey from the flowers along the banks.

Many of the bee-masters in France have an ingenious mode of transporting the loaded bee-hives from one part of the country to another. They are fastened together by laths placed on pack-cloth, which is drawn up on each side, and then tied by a piece of pack-thread several times round the top. In this state they are laid in a cart, and can be carried in safety to very considerable distances.

When the young bees begin to appear, the hives become so much crowded that theyswarmor separate. This usually takes place in the month of May, or earlier if the season be warm.

In England it is customary, in taking the honey, to destroy the bees, by suffocating them with the fumes of brimstone; but there are modes, which not only humanity but even policy would recommend, of obtaining the honey without injuring the insects.

263.The COMMON, or BLACK-CLAWED CRAB(Cancer pagurus, Fig. 76),is a crustaceous animal, with smooth shell, of somewhat oval shape, having a margin with nine folds on each side, and the great claws black at the tip.These crabs inhabit the rocky parts of the sea both of Europe and India.

These crabs inhabit the rocky parts of the sea both of Europe and India.

They are frequently caught at low water of the spring tides, under stones and in crevices of the rocks. But the usual mode is by large wicker baskets made somewhat in the shape of wire mouse-traps, and baited with garbage or fish. When caught, the large claws are tied together, or (with great cruelty) pegged in the joints, to prevent the animals from destroying each other. They are then put into store baskets, which are placed in the sea, until the crabs are wanted for sale. In these they are kept sometimes for many weeks, without any other food than what they can collect from the sea-water.

The principal season for crabs is the spring of theyear; and those of middle size which are the heaviest are best. When in perfection the joints of the legs are stiff, and the body has an agreeable smell. If the eyes look dead and flaccid, the crabs are not fresh.

The article which is used in medicine calledcrabs' claws, consists of the black tips of the claws pounded, well washed in boiling water, and reduced to a fine powder.

264.The LAND CRAB(Cancer ruricola)is a crustaceous animal, common in some parts of America, the Bahamas, and other islands in the West Indies, which has a rounded shell without margin, and the first joints of the legs spinous, and the second and third furnished with tufts of hair.The shells of the largest land crabs are about six inches in diameter, and of various colours.

The shells of the largest land crabs are about six inches in diameter, and of various colours.

These crabs inhabit the clefts of rocks, the hollows of trees, or holes which they form in the ground. In the early part of the year they descend in myriads to the sea-coast, to deposit their eggs in the sand. They chiefly travel by night, but in rainy weather they also proceed during the day. The inhabitants of the countries where they abound are always eagerly on watch for their migrations towards the sea, and destroy immense numbers of them, disregarding, at this time, the bodies, and only taking out the spawn. It is on their return that the animals themselves are valuable as food.

265.The LOBSTER(Cancer gammarus, Fig. 74)is a well known crustaceous animal, distinguished by its long and jointed tail, its shell being smooth, and having betwixt the eyes a kind of beak toothed on each side, and with a double tooth at its base.These animals are of bluish black colour when alive, but, in boiling, this changes to a dingy red. They sometimes grow to an immense size.Lobsters are found among marine rocks in nearly all parts of Europe.

These animals are of bluish black colour when alive, but, in boiling, this changes to a dingy red. They sometimes grow to an immense size.

Lobsters are found among marine rocks in nearly all parts of Europe.

They are caught much in the same manner as crabs (263). The London markets are supplied with greatnumbers of lobsters from the Orkney Islands and the eastern parts of Scotland, and even from the coast of Norway. It is said that in London lobsters are sometimes boiled every day for a week or longer, to keep them sweet externally; but, notwithstanding this precaution, their inner parts become putrid. An immoderate use both of lobsters and crabs is sometimes attended with irruptions in the face, or a species of nettle rash over the whole body; and, when eaten in a state approaching to putrescence, they are sometimes productive of still more disagreeable effects.

When selected for the table, lobsters ought to be heavy in proportion to their size, and to have a hard, and firm crust. During winter the male lobsters are generally preferred for the table. These are distinguished by the narrowness of their tail, and by the first two fins beneath being large and hard. The females, on the contrary, are broader in the tail, and have these fins small and soft. The roe or eggs are found under the tail of the females for some time after they have been protruded from the body, and in this state the females are generally preferred to the males. When fresh, the tails of lobsters are stiff, and pull open with a spring, but when they are stale the joints of the tail become flaccid.

266.The SEA CRAW-FISH, or SPINY LOBSTER(Cancer homarus),is a crustaceous animal, distinguishable from the common lobster, by its shell being covered with spines, mud by each of the legs ending in a hairy claw.This species is of large size, and is found in most of the European seas.

This species is of large size, and is found in most of the European seas.

Sea craw-fish are very common in the London markets, where they are sold at a price inferior to that of the common lobsters. Their flesh is hard, and has a peculiar sweetness, which by many persons is much disliked. At Marseilles, and on the coast of the Mediterranean, however, they are in considerable request on account of their eggs, which are esteemed a great delicacy. These begin to appear towards theend of May, and are cast about two months afterwards.

267.The COMMON, or FRESH-WATER CRAW-FISH(Cancer astacus),is a small crustaceous animal, in shape somewhat resembling a lobster, and distinguished by having its large claws beset with numerous tubercles, and the beak between its eyes being toothed on each side, and having a single tooth at the base.It inhabits holes in the clayey or stony banks of many of the rivers of England, and is seldom known to exceed the length of three or four inches.

It inhabits holes in the clayey or stony banks of many of the rivers of England, and is seldom known to exceed the length of three or four inches.

Craw-fish are frequently used in cookery; and their flesh is considered nutritive, but somewhat indigestible.

Those substances which in medicine are improperly denominatedcrabs' eyesare concretions formed within the thorax of the craw-fish. They are generally about the size of peas, or larger, somewhat flatted on one side, and of whitish colour. The principal part of them are brought from Muscovy, and particularly from the banks of the river Don.

In England the usual mode of catching craw-fish is by cleft sticks, baited with flesh or garbage, and stuck in the mud near their haunts at the distance of a few feet from each other. After being suffered to remain some time, these are gently drawn up, and a basket is put under them to receive the animals, which always drop off as soon as they are brought to the surface of the water.

268.The COMMON SHRIMP(Cancer crangon),is a very small crustaceous animal, somewhat shaped like a lobster; having four antennæ, the two interior ones short and double, with two thin projecting laminæ beneath them, and on each of the large claws a single moveable fang.Shrimps are common in shallow parts of the sea where the bottom is sandy.

Shrimps are common in shallow parts of the sea where the bottom is sandy.

269.The PRAWN(Cancer squilla, Fig. 75),is a small crustaceous animal, which differs from the shrimp in having a preceding and sharply serrated horn in front of its head,four antennæ, of which the two interior ones are long, and each in three divisions, and on each of the large claws two fangs.It is found in many parts of the European ocean.

It is found in many parts of the European ocean.

Both these species are in great demand for the table, the former chiefly as sauce, and the latter to eat as a relish at breakfast or with the last courses at dinner. They are an agreeable repast, and more easily digestible than either crabs or lobsters.

The mode in which they are caught is generally by a kind of net called a putting net, which is fixed to the end of a long pole, and pushed along upon the sand in shallow water. Prawns in some places are caught in wicker baskets, similar in shape to those which are used for the catching of crabs (263).

270.The MEDICINAL LEECH(Hirudo medicinalis),is a worm-shaped animal of olive-black colour, with six yellowish lines on the upper part of the body, and spotted with yellow beneath.When fully extended, the leech is generally two or three inches in length. It is found in stagnant and muddy waters.

270.The MEDICINAL LEECH(Hirudo medicinalis),is a worm-shaped animal of olive-black colour, with six yellowish lines on the upper part of the body, and spotted with yellow beneath.

When fully extended, the leech is generally two or three inches in length. It is found in stagnant and muddy waters.

The use of leeches in medicine is to diminish the accumulation of blood in any particular part of the body. This they do by fixing themselves to the spot, forming a hole with three sharp teeth which are situated triangularly in their mouth, and sucking the blood through the wound. When they have drawn sufficient, they are easily loosened by putting upon them a small quantity of salt, pepper, or vinegar.

Leeches are caught in various ways, but one of the best is to throw bundles of weeds into the water whichthey inhabit. These, if taken out a few hours afterwards, will generally be found to contain a considerable number. They are collected from several of the rivers in the south of England, and are kept for sale sometimes, many thousands together, in casks or tubs of spring water. This is frequently changed, and all the slime and filth which exude from their bodies is carefully washed away.

It is said that if leeches be kept in glass vessels they will indicate a change of weather, by becoming at such times peculiarly restless and active.

271.The OFFICINAL CUTTLE-FISH(Sepia officinalis),is a marine animal, with somewhat oval body nearly surrounded by a margin, eight short and pointed arms, and two tentacula four times as long as the arms, all furnished with numerous small cup-shaped suckers.These animals are found in considerable numbers in the European seas.

These animals are found in considerable numbers in the European seas.

By the ancients, cuttle-fish were in great esteem as a delicacy for the table; and, even at the present day, they are frequently eaten by the Italians, and by the inhabitants of other countries on the shores of the Mediterranean.

There is, in the middle of their body, an oval bone, thick in the middle, and thin and sharp at the edges, light, spongy, and of whitish colour. These bones were formerly employed in medicine, and are still kept in the druggists' shops. When dried and pulverized, they are used by silversmiths as moulds, in which they cast spoons, rings, and other small work. When burnt or calcined, they are useful for the cleaning and polishing of silver and other hard substances, and sometimes for correcting the acidity of wines.

The body of the cuttle-fish is furnished with a vessel that contains a considerable quantity of dark-coloured or inky fluid, which the animal emits into the water, to conceal its retreat when alarmed by the approach of its enemies. And it is generally supposed that the article calledIndian inkis this black fluid, in an inspissated orhardened state, and perfumed with musk and other substances.

272.The PEARL-BEARING MYA(Mya margaritifera)is a testaceous animal, having an oblong double or bivalve shell of somewhat oval shape, but narrower towards the middle than at the ends, and covered externally with a dark-coloured rough epidermis or skin, except on the protuberant parts near the hinge: one of the shells at the hinge has a single tooth or prominent part, which fits into a forked one in the other.The general depth of the shells is two inches, and breadth about five inches.Pearl-bearing myas are found in fresh-water rivers in many parts of Britain, and in those of most other countries within the arctic circle. The river Tay in Scotland, and the Conwy in Wales, are particularly noted for them.

The general depth of the shells is two inches, and breadth about five inches.

Pearl-bearing myas are found in fresh-water rivers in many parts of Britain, and in those of most other countries within the arctic circle. The river Tay in Scotland, and the Conwy in Wales, are particularly noted for them.

In the river Tay some of these shells are found to contain good pearls; but fine ones are very scarce, and the greater part are of little or no value. They are of various shapes, round, oval, or elongated, and cylindrical, hemispherical, and resembling buttons. Several of the oblong ones have a contraction towards the middle, which gives them the appearance of two pearls joined together.

Pearls are a calculus, or morbid concretion, formed in consequence of some external injury which the shell receives, particularly from the operations of certain minute worms which occasionally bore even quite through to the animal. The pearls are formed in the inside on these places. Hence it is easy to ascertain, by the inspection of the outside only, whether a shell is likely to contain pearls. If it be quite smooth, without cavity, perforation, or callosity, it may with certainty be pronounced to contain none. If, on the contrary, the shell be pierced or indented by worms, there will always be found either pearls or the embryos of pearls. It is possible, by artificial perforations of the shells, to cause the formation of these substances. The process which has been chiefly recommended is to drilla small hole through the shell, and to fill this hole with a piece of brass wire, rivetting it on the outside like the head of a nail; and the part of the wire which pierces the interior shining coat of the shell will, it is said, become covered with a pearl.

As to the value of British pearls, some have been found of size so large as to be sold for 20l.each and upwards; and 80l.was once offered and refused for one of them. It is reported in Wales, that a pearl, from the river Conwy, which was presented to the queen of Charles the Second, was afterwards placed in the regal crown.

273.The ORIENTAL PEARL MUSCLE(Mytilus margaritiferus)to which we are indebted for nearly all the pearls of commerce, has a flattened and somewhat circular shell, about eight inches in diameter; the part near the hinge bent, or transverse, and imbricated (or covered like slates on a house) with several coats which are toothed at the edges.Some of the shells are externally of sea-green colour, others are chesnut, or reddish with white stripes or marks; and others whitish with green marks.These shells are found both in the American and Indian seas.

Some of the shells are externally of sea-green colour, others are chesnut, or reddish with white stripes or marks; and others whitish with green marks.

These shells are found both in the American and Indian seas.

The principal pearl fisheries are off the coasts of Hindostan and Ceylon. The fishing usually commences about the month of March, and occupies many boats and a great number of hands. Each boat has generally twenty-one men, of whom one is the captain, who acts as pilot; ten row and assist the divers, and the remainder are divers. The latter go down into the sea alternately by five at a time. To accelerate their descent they have a perforated stone of eighteen or twenty pounds weight, fastened by a cord to their great toe, or to some other part of their body. The depth of water through which they pass is from four to ten fathoms; and they collect the muscles into a bag of net-work which they hang about their necks. When desirous of ascending, they pull a rope as a signal to their companions in the boat to draw them up. Theyare often known to descend as many as forty or fifty times in a day, and at each plunge to return with more than a hundred shells. The usual time for the divers to remain under water does not much exceed two minutes, though some are able to continue immersed more than five minutes.

When the muscles are taken out of the boats, they are placed in heaps on the shore, where they continue about ten days, till the animals become quite putrid. They are then opened and searched for the pearls. One muscle sometimes contains many pearls, a hundred and upwards, large and small; and sometimes a hundred muscles have been opened without yielding a single pearl large enough to be of any value.

The pearls are sorted according to their size, by being passed through large brass sieves, or through saucers with round holes in the bottom. After having been sorted, they are drilled; and then washed in salt water to prevent any stains which might be left by the drilling. The arranging of them on strings is considered the most difficult task of a pearl merchant, in consequence of the correctness of judgment which is requisite in classing them according to their value.

The value of pearls is estimated by their size, roundness, colour and brightness. A handsome necklace of pearls, smaller than large peas, is worth from 170l.to 300l.whilst one of pearls not larger than pepper-corns may not be worth more than 20l.The King of Persia has a pear-shaped pearl so large and pure as to have been valued at 110,000l.sterling. The largest round pearl that has been known belonged to the Great Mogul, and was about two-thirds of an inch in diameter. Pearls from the fishery of Ceylon are considered more valuable in England than those from any other part of the world. The smaller kinds are calledseedordust pearls, and are of comparatively small value, being sold by the ounce to be converted into powder.

Nacreormother-of-pearlis the inner part of the shell of the pearl muscle. This is of a brilliant andbeautifully white colour, and is usually separated from the external part by aqua-fortis, or the lapidary's mill. Pearl muscle shells are on this account an important article of traffic to China and many parts of India, as well as to the different countries of Europe. They are manufactured into beads, snuff-boxes, buttons, and spoons, fish and counters, for card-players, and innumerable other articles.

The pearl muscles are not considered good as food; though, after having been dried in the sun, they are sometimes eaten by the lower classes of people in the countries near which they are found.

274.The COMMON or EDIBLE MUSCLE(Mytilus edulis, Fig. 79)is a testaceous animal, with a smooth double or bivalve shell of oblong oval form, pointed, and slightly keel-shaped at the beak, flatted and somewhat curved on one side.The colour is generally blackish, and the length about three inches.This species of muscle is found adhering to sub-marine rocks by certain silky threads, which it forms from its own body; and it is common both in the Indian and European seas.

The colour is generally blackish, and the length about three inches.

This species of muscle is found adhering to sub-marine rocks by certain silky threads, which it forms from its own body; and it is common both in the Indian and European seas.

In many parts of Europe muscles are nearly as much in request for the table as oysters; and at Rochelle, and some other places, modes are adopted of increasing their excellence, by placing them, after they are taken from the sea, in pools or ditches where the sea-water is stagnant, and introduced only at particular periods as it is wanted. Muscles are caught nearly through the whole year, though they are considered best in the autumn.

To some constitutions they are an unwholesome food, producing inflammation, eruptions on the skin, and an intolerable itching over the whole body; the best remedies for which are said to be a liberal use of oil, emetics, or milk.

275.The OYSTER(Ostrea edulis, Fig. 77)is a testaceous animal, too well known to need any description.It is found affixed to rocks, or in large beds, both in the European and Indian seas.

275.The OYSTER(Ostrea edulis, Fig. 77)is a testaceous animal, too well known to need any description.

It is found affixed to rocks, or in large beds, both in the European and Indian seas.

The use of oysters as food has rendered them celebrated in all ages. The ancient Roman writers speak of them as in great request by that luxurious people. Pliny relates that in his time they were considered so exquisite as, when in perfection, to have been sold for enormous prices; and that Apicius, the notorious epicure or glutton, invented a peculiar method of preserving and fattening them.

Of all the European oysters, the largest are those that are caught off the coast of Normandy, and with which Paris is principally supplied. But the best are of middle or somewhat small size, and are caught in the waters of Malden and Colne in Essex, or near the mouth of the Thames. They are dredged up by a net (with an iron scraper at the mouth) which is dragged by a rope from a boat over the beds; and then stored in large pits formed for the purpose, and furnished with sluices through which, at spring tides, the salt water is suffered to flow. In these pits they acquire their full quality, and become fit for the table in six or eight weeks. The most delicious oysters are considered to be those which are fattened in the salt-water creeks near Milton in Kent, and Colchester in Essex.

Oysters are out of season during the summer-time, the period at which they deposit their spawn, and which commences in the month of April. Each spawn has the appearance of a drop of candle-grease, and adheres to rocks, stones, or other substances on which it happens to be deposited. In some oyster-beds, old shells, pieces of wood, &c. under the denomination ofcultch, are purposely thrown in to receive the spawn. From these, in the month of May, the oyster-fishers are allowed to separate the spawn for the purpose of transferring it to other beds; but they are required, under certain penalties, to throw the cultch in again, that the beds may be preserved for the future; unless thespawn should be so small as not with safety to be separable from the cultch.

Oysters are considered to be first fit for the table when about a year and half old; and they are among the few animals which in Europe are not merely eaten raw, but even in a living state. Oysters are also eaten cooked in various ways, as sauce to different kinds of fish, and pickled.

Theshells, like those of other testaceous animals, consist of calcareous earth in combination with animal glue; and, by calcination, they yield a pure kind of quick-lime. In this state they are not only useful as lime, but are also frequently employed by stationers and attorneys as pounce for rubbing upon parchment previously to its being written upon.

276.The GREAT SCALLOP(Pecten maximus, Fig. 78)is a testaceous animal with a double shell, flat on one side, and convex on the other, with about fourteen rounded ribs, which are longitudinally grooved, and a projection or ear on each side of the hinge.The shells, when full grown, are about five inches long, and six inches broad.

The shells, when full grown, are about five inches long, and six inches broad.

By some persons scallops are thought better eating than oysters; and the ancients held them in great esteem. In several parts of France they have the name of "Coquilles de Saint Jacques," from the Catholics who annually visit the shrine of St. James of Compostella, in Spain, placing the shells in their hats as a testimony of this pilgrimage. These shells are also worn by pilgrims to the Holy Land.

277.The COCKLE(Cardium edule, Fig. 80)is a small and well-known testaceous animal with a double convex shell, somewhat deeper on one side than the other; and marked by twenty-eight depressed ribs, which are streaked or slightly furrowed across.

Cockles are perhaps more generally eaten in England than in any other country of the world: and theyare a wholesome and, to many persons, an agreeable food, but, if eaten raw, they are supposed to produce poisonous effects. Cockles are generally found on sea coasts, immersed at the depth of two or three inches in the sand. They are dug up at low water, and the places where they are concealed are known by small, circular, and depressed spots in the sand. Cockles are chiefly in request during the winter months. They are sometimes pickled, and sometimes converted into ketchup.

278.The GREAT PINNA, or SEA WING(Pinna nobilis)is a testaceous animal with a double or bivalve shell, of nearly triangular shape, open at the broader end, longitudinally striated, the scales channelled and tubular, and somewhat imbricated.Its length is sometimes more than fourteen inches, and its greatest breadth six or seven inches.These animals are found in great abundance in the Mediterranean; and in the sea near some parts of the coast of America.

Its length is sometimes more than fourteen inches, and its greatest breadth six or seven inches.

These animals are found in great abundance in the Mediterranean; and in the sea near some parts of the coast of America.

From the most remote periods of antiquity thebyssus, as it has been denominated, or silky threads by which these animals affix their shells to rocks or stones at the bottom of the sea, has been spun and woven into different articles of dress. For this purpose the shells are dragged up by a kind of iron rake with many teeth, each about seven inches long, and three inches asunder; and attached to a handle proportionate to the depth of water in which the shells are found. When the byssus is separated, it is well washed, to cleanse it from impurities. It is then dried in the shade, and straightened with a large comb; the hard part from which it springs is cut off, and the remainder is properly carded. By these different processes it is said that a pound of byssus, as taken from the sea, is reduced to about three ounces. This substance, in its natural colour, which is a brilliant golden brown, is manufactured in Sicily and Calabria (with the aid of a little silk to strengthen it) into stockings, gloves, caps,waistcoats, and other articles of extremely fine texture. All these, however, are to be considered rather as curious than useful; and the manufacture of them is every day declining.

279.The EDIBLE SNAIL(Helix pomatia),is a shell animal distinguished by its large size, nearly globular shape; being of brownish white colour with usually three reddish horizontal bands, somewhat striated longitudinally; and having a large and rounded aperture with thickened and reflected margin.It is sometimes more than two inches in diameter; and is found in woods and hedges in several parts of Europe, and occurs in those of some of the southern counties of England.

It is sometimes more than two inches in diameter; and is found in woods and hedges in several parts of Europe, and occurs in those of some of the southern counties of England.

By the Romans, towards the close of the republic, when the luxury of the table was carried to the greatest height of absurdity and extravagance, this species of snails were fattened as food, in a kind of stews constructed for the purpose, and were sometimes purchased at enormous prices. The places for feeding them were usually formed under rocks or eminences; and, if these were not otherwise sufficiently moist, water was conveyed into them through pipes bored full of holes like those of a watering pot. They were fattened with bran and the sodden lees of wine.

In France, Germany, and other countries of the Continent, these snails are at this day in great request for the table: and are chiefly in season during winter and the early months of the year. They are boiled in their shells, and then taken out, washed, seasoned, and otherwise cooked according to particular palates. Sometimes they are fried in butter, and sometimes stuffed with force-meat; but, in what manner soever they are dressed, their sliminess always in a great measure remains. They are generally kept in holes dug in the ground, and are fed on refuse vegetables from the gardens.

These snails are frequently used by females in France, as a cosmetic, to preserve the skin of the face soft and delicate.

280.CORAL(Corallium nobilis)is a hard, stony, branched, and cylindrical substance which is formed, at the bottom of the sea, by certain minute animals called polypes, that issue from the branches, and are white, soft, semi-transparent, and each furnished with eight tentacula or feelers.The general appearance of coral is that of a shrub destitute of leaves; and its height is usually from three to four feet.It is found in great abundance in the Mediterranean and the Red Sea.

The general appearance of coral is that of a shrub destitute of leaves; and its height is usually from three to four feet.

It is found in great abundance in the Mediterranean and the Red Sea.

To the inhabitants of Marseilles, Catalonia, and Corsica, the coral fishery is a very important pursuit; and the principal parts of the Mediterranean from which coral is obtained are the coasts of Tunis and Sardinia, and the mouth of the Adriatic Sea. The British government has, within the last few years, concluded a treaty with the Barbary powers, for liberty to fish for coral in their waters. The coral thus obtained is conveyed chiefly to Malta and Sicily, is there wrought into beads and other ornamental forms; and thence is imported into this country. Previously to this arrangement the principal import of coral was from Leghorn.

The mode of obtaining coral is by a very simple machine, consisting of two strong bars of wood or iron tied across each other, with a weight suspended from their centre of union. Each of the arms is loosely surrounded, through its whole length, with twisted hemp; and, at the extremity, there is a small open purse or net. This machine is suspended by a rope, and dragged along those rocks where the coral is most abundant; and such as is broken off either becomes entangled in the hemp, or falls into the nets.

Coral is bought by weight: and its value increases in a certain ratio according to its size. Beads of large size are worth about forty shillings an ounce, whilst small ones do not sell for more than four shillings. Large pieces of coral are sometimes cut into balls, and exported to China, to be worn in the caps of certain persons, as an insignia of office. These, if perfectly sound and of good colour, and upwards of an inch indiameter, have been known to produce, in that market, as much as 300l.to 400l.sterling each. There are extant many beautiful pieces of sculpture in coral; as this substance has in all ages been considered an admirable material on which to exhibit the artist's taste and skill. Probably the finest specimens of sculptured coral that are known are a chess-board and men, in the Tuilleries.

The Chinese have, within the last three or four years, succeeded in cutting coral beads of much smaller dimension than has hitherto been effected by any European artist. These, which are not larger than small pins' heads, are calledseed coral, and are now imported from China into this country in very considerable quantity for necklaces. Nearly the whole of the coral that is used is ofredcolour;white coralbeing considered of little value either as an article of commerce or decoration. There are modes of imitating coral so exactly, that, without a close inspection, it is sometimes impossible to discover the difference betwixt the real and the counterfeit article.

281.SPONGE(Spongia officinalis)is an animal substance of soft, light, porous, and elastic nature, which is found adhering to rocks at the bottom of the sea in several parts of the Mediterranean, and particularly near the islands of the Grecian Archipelago.

The general uses of sponge, arising from its ready absorption of fluids, and distension by moisture, are well known, and of great importance. It is collected from rocks, in water five or six fathoms deep, chiefly by divers, who, after much practice, become extremely expert in obtaining it. When first taken from the sea, it has a strong and fishy smell, of which it is divested by being washed in clear water. No other preparation than this is requisite previously to its being packed up for exportation and sale. The growth of sponge is so rapid that it is frequently found in perfection on rocksfrom which, only two years before, it had been entirely cleared. It is principally imported into this country from the Levant.

Sponge is sometimes used by surgeons for the dilating of wounds; and, as it adheres strongly to the mouths of wounded vessels, it is occasionally applied as a styptic to prevent their bleeding. Sponge burnt in a close earthen or iron vessel, and then reduced to powder, is sometimes used as a medicine.

TO THE

THIRD VOLUME.

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